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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A SYLLABUS OF THE 
HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



BY 



WILLIAM J. TAYLOR, Ph.D. 

BROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS 

FORMERLY LECTURER ON THE HISTORY 

AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 

IN YALE UNIVERSITY 



>&& 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1909 



V /\ J 



Copyright, 1909, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 



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SEP 24 


J011 
1909 



PREFACE 

The present volume is the outgrowth of several years' 
experience in the use of the syllabus method in teaching the 
history of education. The syllabi were originally prepared 
in a somewhat elaborate form for use in graduate classes at 
Yale University. The teaching method used in the course 
at Yale combined extensive library reading with lectures. 
Subsequently the syllabi were revised and to some degree 
abridged for my classes in the Brooklyn Training School for 
Teachers, where they have been of service in directing and 
organizing the students' reading. They are now published 
in the belief that they will fill a wider field of usefulness in 
normal school and college classes. 

The student of the history of education is confronted by 
two serious obstacles. First, there is the difficulty of amass- 
ing and retaining a foundation of fact sufficient to support 
the broad generalizations that are needful if a course in the 
subject is to fulfill its function of emancipating the peda- 
gogical mind from petty prejudices and schoolroom idols. 
Second, there is the difficulty of organizing the facts, when 
once they are acquired, into a useful system of applicable 
knowledge. No one knows the extent of these difficulties 
until he has had the responsible office of guiding untraveled 
footsteps through the labyrinth constituting the history of 
education, within the time-limits imposed by the average 
normal school course. Yet unless a full array of facts 
is presented and adequately organized, such a course does 
not measure up to its educational possibilities. 



iv PREFACE 

It is as an adjunct to reading and an aid to logical organi- 
zation that this syllabus will prove most useful. In order 
to encourage as wide a range of reading as possible, page 
references to the most accessible text-books and reference 
books have been cited. The thought is that where a teacher 
prefers the text-book method, and relies on only one book, 
references to his favorite text will be found. But in case 
the teacher refers to several books, — the better method, in 
the author's judgment, — a sufficient number of references 

will be available to meet his needs. 

W. J. T. 
June 29, 1909. 



CONTENTS 

PART ONE. ORIENTAL EDUCATION 

PAGE 

iVegypt 3 

II. China 4 

III. India 4 

IV. Judea 5 

" V. Persia 5 

PART TWO. GRiECO-ROMAN EDUCATION 
Greek Education 

I. Introductory Points 9 

II. Primitp7e Education 9 

III. Old Greek Education . io 

1. The Spartan System io 

2. The Old Athenian System " 

IV. New Greek Education (at Athens) 13 

V. Greek Educational Theorists 14 

1. Pythagoras *4 

2. Socrates J 4 

3. Xenophon J 5 

4. Plato l6 

5. Aristotle J 7 

VI. Cosmopolitan Greek Education 19 

VII, Aspects of Greek Culture having an Indirect Influ- 
ence upon Education 19 

Roman Education 

I. Introductory Points 2I 

II. Primitive Education at Rome 23 

v 



vi * CONTENTS 

PAGE 

III. Early Organization of Education under Greek Influ- 

ence 23 

IV. Period of the Complete Dominance of Greek Influ- 

ence 24 

V. The Decadent Period 25 

VI. Educational Theorists 26 

1. Cicero 26 

2. Seneca 26 

3. Quintilian 27 

PART THREE. MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION 

I. Culture and the Early Church 31 

II. The Monastic Type of Education 32 

III. Nationalization of Ecclesiastical Education . . 33 

IV. Development of Types of Secular Education during 

the Later Middle Ages . . . . . -34 

1. Influence of the Crusades 34 

2. Chivalry 35 

3. Scholasticism 36 

4. The University Movement 37 

5. Mohammedan Culture in Contact with Mediaeval Education 38 

6. Corporate Elementary Schools : Guild and Burgher Schools 38 

PART FOUR. MODERN EDUCATION 
First. The Transition Period 

I. Historical Changes which influenced the Beginnings 

of Modern Education 43 

II. The Humanistic Movement 45 

1. Causes 46 

2. Humanism in Italy 46 

3. Humanism in Germany and the Netherlands ... 47 

4. Humanism in England 47 

III. The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter 

Reformation 47 

1. The Educational Aspects of the Protestant Reformation . 47 



\/ 



CONTENTS vii 

PAGE 

2. The Catholic Reaction against the Protestant Reforma- 
tion 49 

a. The Jesuits 50 

b. The Oratorians 50 

c. The Jansenists 51 

d. The Brethren of the Christian Schools . . . .51 

Second. The Period of Educational Reform 

I. The Realistic Movement 52 

1. Realism Defined 52 

2. Rabelais 52 

3. Ascham 53 

4. Montaigne 53 

5. Milton 54 

6. Mulcaster 54 

7. Ratke 55 

II. The "Formal Discipline" Movement .... 56 

1. Formal Discipline Defined 56 

2. Locke 56 

III. The Naturalistic Movement 57 

1. Naturalism Defined 57 

2. Bacon $8 

3. Comenius 58 

4. Rousseau 60 

5. Basedow 61 

IV. The Rationalistic Movement 62 

1. Rationalism Defined 62 

2. Kant 62 

3. Fichte 63 

V. The Psychological Movement 63 

1. The Psychological Movement Defined .... 63 

2. Pestalozzi 63 

3. Herbart 65 

4. Froebel 69 

VI. The Utilitarian Movement 71 

1. The Utilitarian Movement Defined 71 

2. Spencer 71 



viii CONTENTS 

Third. Contemporary Educational Theory 

PAGE 

I. The Sociological Conception 73 

II. The Evolutionary Conception 75 

Fourth. School Organization 

L Humanistic Schools 77 

II. Realistic Schools 78 

III. Naturalistic Schools 80 

Fifth. National School Systems 

I. Germany 81 

II. France 83 

III. England 84 

IV. The United States 86 

Sixth. Education in the United States 

I. The Colonial Period 89 

1. Virginia and the Southern Colonies 89 

2. The New England Colonies 89 

3. New York and the Middle Colonies 91 

II. The National Period 93 

1. Educational Development during the First Fifty Years of 

National History 94 

2. The Educational Revival under the Leadership of Horace 

Mann 96 

3. Organization of State Systems of Education 97 

4. The United States Bureau of Education .... 97 

5. Training of Teachers 98 

6. Education of Women 98 

7. Introduction of European Influences 99 

APPENDICES 

Appendix A: Summary of the Principal Influences in Education 

beginning with the Renaissance 103 

Appendix B: Summary of the Leading Facts in the Educational 

Development of New York State 129 



CONTENTS 



IX 



Appendix C : Outlines of Modern Educational Classics 
Montaigne's Of the Education of Children 
Milton's A Tractate on Education 
Locke's Some Thoughts concerning Education . 
Rousseau's Amile, or Concerning Education 
Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude . 
Spencer's Education : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical 

Index 



PAGE 
134 
134 
135 
136 
136 
137 
138 

139 



PART ONE 
ORIENTAL EDUCATION 



SYLLABUS OF THE HISTORY OF 
EDUCATION 



ORIENTAL EDUCATION 

The Oriental nations were alike in the following 
respects : first, they were isolated ; second, they were 
exclusive ; third, they adhered to hard and fast social 
distinctions ; fourth, they held that wisdom comes either 
from the past or from a higher power that reveals itself 
through inspired persons ; fifth, they were ruled by a 
special class whose authority was sanctioned by tradition 
or a power higher than man ; sixth, religion and govern- 
ment were closely related. 

I. Egypt (4400-332 b.c). Kemp, 39-44; Painter, 
33-38 (old edition, 32-36); Williams, 
57-72 ; Seeley, 46-51 ; Davidson, 37-41 ; 
Laurie*, 11-48. 

1. Geographical position: the Nile valley. Laurie, 

11-12. 

2. Religion and belief in a future life. Laurie, 14- 

17, 19-20, 26-27, 2 9- 

3. Social classes: priests; soldiers; other free 

men. Laurie, 33-37. 

4. Education. Laurie, 41-47. 

A. The priests. 

B. Other professions: scribe; architect; 

physician ; soldier. 

5. Literature: stories; poems; Bjmkofjj^e Dead. 

Laurie, 17-18, 20-26, 29-32. 

3 



4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

II. China (2200 b.c. to modern times). Kemp, 17-25; 
Painter, 11-18 (old edition, 9-15); Wil- 
liams, 33-45 ; Seeley, 20-28 ; Davidson, 
41-45; Laurie, 103-151; Monroe, 17-49 
{Brief Course, 11-19, 23-25). 

1. Geographical isolation. Laurie, 104-105. 

2. Religion : prominence of ancestor-worship. 

Laurie, 11 2-1 15. 

3. Mental peculiarities. Laurie, n 5-1 20. 

4. Education. Laurie, 120-145. 

A. School organization. Laurie, 134-145. 

B. State examination system. Laurie, 122- 

134. 

5. The great moralists : C®nfucius (55 1-478 B.C.); 

Mencius (372-289 b.c). 

6. Literature : Four Books; Five Classics. Laurie, 

108-110. 

III. India (Hindus) (2000 b.c to modern times). 
Kemp, 26-33 ; Painter, 18-23 (old edi- 
tion, 15-21); Williams, 50-56; Seeley, 
2 9~35; Davidson, 56-66; Laurie, 156- 
177; Monroe, Brief Course, 19-21; Com- 
payre, 2-6. 

1. Religion. Laurie, 161-166. 

2. Castes: priests (Brahmans); warriors; mer- 

chants; laborers (Sudras). Laurie, 159- 
160. 

3. Education. Laurie, 166-177. 

A. Elementary schools : teachers ; curriculum ; 

method. 

B. Advanced schools (parishads). 



ORIENTAL EDUCATION 5 

4. Literature : Vedas {Rig-veda ; Mahabharata ; 
Ramayana) 

\j * 

IV- Judea (Hebrews or Jews) ( 1 500 b.c. to modern 
times). Kemp, 45-52 ; Painter, 27-33 
(old edition, 26-32); Williams, 86-94; 
Seeley, 40-45 ; Davidson, 77-86 ; Laurie, 
65-100; Monroe, Brief Course, 21-23; 
Compayre, 6-1 1. 

1. Geographical location and historical sketch. 

Laurie, 65-70. 

2. Religion : monotheistic ; Jehovah as law-giver 

and judge. Laurie, 70-76. 

3. Government: theocratic (executing the re- 

vealed will of Jehovah). 

4. Education. Laurie, 76-100. 

A. First period (1493-1043 B.C.): family; 

priesthood. Laurie, 78-80. 

B. Second period (1043-538 b.c): schools of 

the prophets. Laurie, 80-83. 

C. Third period (538 b.c. to birth of Christ): 

scribes ; synogogue. Laurie, 83-92. 

D. Fourth period (after birth of Christ) : rab- 

binical schools ; Talmudic education. 
Laurie, 92-100. 

5. Literature: Old Testament ; Talmud. 

V. Persia (1000-331 b.c). Kemp, 34-38; Painter, 
23-27 (old edition, 21-26); Williams, 
73-80 ; Seeley, 36-39 ; Davidson, 66-74 ; 
Laurie, 178-195. 
1. Geographical position. Laurie, 178-179. 



6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

2. Religion : Zoroastrianism, — a dualistic religion 

(Ormazd, the source of good ; Ahriman, 
the source of evil). Laurie, 185-190. 

3. Social organization. Laurie, 182. 

4. Education. Laurie, 190-193. 

5. Literature : Zend-Avesta. 

References. Kemp, History of Education ; Painter, 
History of Education (revised edition ; old edition also 
referred to) ; Williams, History of Ancient Education ; 
Seeley, History of Education; Davidson, History of 
Education; Laurie, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian 
Education ; Monroe, Text-book in the History of Educa- 
tion ; Monroe, A Brief Course in the History of Educa- 
tion; Compayr6, History of Pedagogy. 



PART TWO 
GR^ECO-ROMAN EDUCATION 



GREEK EDUCATION 

The Greeks, the earliest European representatives of 
the Aryan race,' exhibit the following characteristics : 
first, their view of life was optimistic ; second, they as- 
sumed a fundamental harmony between man and nature ; 
third, they developed moral and religious notions on the 
basis of reason ; fourth, individual development in har- 
mony with social obligations was emphasized ; fifth, 
they manifested an unusual sense of beauty ; sixth, 
they encouraged progress. 

I. Introductory Points. 

i. Geography: mountains; long, broken coast 
line. 

2. Branches of the race : ^Eolians (represented 

by the Thebans); Dorians (repre- 
sented by the Spartans); Ionians (rep- 
resented by the Athenians). 

3. Government : the " city-state " (cities with 

small adjacent territory). 

4. Civic virtues of the Greeks : wisdom (sophid) ; 

moderation (sophrosy?ie) ; grace {enkos- 
mia). 

5. Religion. Laurie, 202-208. 

II. Primitive Education. 

1. The Homeric age (1000-800 B.C.). Laurie, 
197-199. 

9 



10 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

A. Practical experience informally transmitted. 

B. Content of education. Monroe, 62-67 

{Brief Course, 31-33)- 

a. Eloquence. Iliad, IX, 438 (Leaf, Lang, 
and Myers' tr., 174). 

b. Valor in battle. 

c. Skill in games. Iliad, XXIII, 260 ff. 
(Leaf, Lang, and Myers' tr., 458 f.). 

III. Old Greek Education (776-480 B.C.). 

1. The Spartan system. Kemp, 57-62 ; Painter, 
41-46 (old edition, 40-45) ; Williams, 
95-106; Seeley, 68-73; Davidson, *4i- 
51; Laurie, 228-248; Monroe, 70-79 
{Brief Course, 34-40). 

A. The Spartan ideal as determined by social 

conditions. 

a. Situation of Sparta. Laurie, 228. 

b. The three classes : Spartans ; Periceci ; 
Helots. 

c. Laws of Lycurgus. Seeley, 72-73. 

B. The Spartan educational system. 

a. Infancy : 1-7. Laurie, 229. 

b. Childhood: 7-18. Laurie, 230-239. 

a. State training supervised by public 
officials. 

/3. Content: gymnastic; "music" (men- 
tal training). 

c. Youth: 18-30. Laurie, 239-243. 

a. " Budding youths " (inelleirenes) : 
18-20. 
/3. Youths (eirenes) : 20-30. 



GREEK EDUCATION n 

7. Content : cadet (ephebic) training in 
arms and citizenship. 

d. Manhood : period of full citizenship : 
after 30. 

a. The family and the state. 

/3. Communistic basis of Spartan society. 

e. Education of girls. Laurie, 244-247. 
C. Results of the Spartan system. Laurie, 

247-248. 
2. Old Athenian system. Kemp, 62-69 ; Painter, 
55-63 (old edition, 49-56); Williams, 
107-129; Seeley, 56-60; Davidson, *6o- 
92 ; Laurie, 248-278 ; Monroe, 79-100 
{Brief Course \ 40-52). 

A. The Athenian ideal. 

a. Individualism. 

b. Self-expression. 

a. Intellectual : philosophy and science. 
/5. Emotional : religion ; literature ; art. 
7. Volitional : civic and military ac- 
tivity. 

c. Conception of virtue. 

a. Perfect m anhood through self-control. 
@. Perfectability through education. 

B. Organization. 

a. Branches of education. 
a. Gymnastic. 

/3. " Music " (in the wider Greek sense) 
for the soul, including music (in the 
modern sense) to purify the emotions 
and "letters" to. develop the intellect. 

b. Periods of education. 



12 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

a. Infancy : the nurse ; games ; play ; 
nursery rhymes; legends. Laurie, 249- 
252. 

/3. Elementary education : after 7 ; boys 
only. 

1) The pedagogue. Laurie, 253. 

2) Mental education at the music 
school by the grammatist. Laurie, 253- 
259. 

3) Music (beginning at 13) by the 
citharist or music-master. 

4) Physical training at the wres- 
tling-school (palczstra) by the gymnastic- 
master (pcedotribe).- Laurie, 264-267. 

7. Advanced education. Laurie, 267, 
270-274. 

1) Physical training continued in 
public gymnasia. 

2) Cadets (ephebi) : 18-20: military 
training ; ephebic oath. 

3) Training in civic duties by free 
intercourse with older men. 

c. Female education. Laurie, 275-276. 

C. Method. 

a. Moral education and discipline. Laurie, 
267-270, 274-275. 

b. Absence of pedagogical principles. 
Laurie, 276-277. 

D. The schools and the teacher. Laurie, 

277-278. 

E. Results and comparison with the Spartan 

system. Laurie, 278-281. 



GREEK EDUCATION I 3 

IV. New Greek Education (at Athens) (480-338 b.c). 

1. Causes of the demand for a broader education. 

Laurie, 283-284; Monroe, 103-109. 

A. Expansion following defeat of Persia. 

a. Naval victory at Salamis (480 B.C.). 

b. Land victory at Plataea (479 B.C.). 

B. Ascendency of Athens among the Greek 

states (Age of Pericles: 461-431 B.C.). 
a. Government became democratic, in- 
creasing the demand for statesmen and 
orators. 

C. Contact with other races through war, 

travel, and colonization broadened the 
intellectual horizon. 

D. Inadequacy of religious and philosophical 

explanations. 
a. The consequent skepticism. 

2. Changes from the Old Education. Laurie, 

283-295. 

A. Demand for higher education, especially 

in literary and philosophical directions. 
Monroe, 109- no. 

B. The great sophists : Protagoras ; Gorgias ; 

Prodicus ; Hippias. Laurie, 284-287 ; 
Monroe, 110-114 (Brief Cotirse, 55-57). 

a. Individualism : doctrine that individual 
opinion is the standard of truth. 

b. What they professed to teach. 

a. The art of persuasion ( To make the 
worse the better reason). 

/3. Their use of rhetorical style and 
tricky argument. 



14 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

d. Their influence. Davidson, *ioi-io7; 
°8i-g6 ; Monroe, I io-i 17 (Brief Course, 

55-59)- 

a. Less attention to physical and mili- 
tary training. 

/3. Political life regarded as an oppor- 
tunity for personal ambition rather than 
as a patriotic duty. 
C. Subjects added to the curriculum : gram- 
mar; rhetoric; disputation (dialectic); 
geometry; drawing. 

V. Greek Educational Theorists. 

1. Pythagoras (580-500 B.C.). Kemp, 70-72 ; 

Painter, 46-50 (old edition, 45-49) ; Wil- 
liams, 141-152; Seeley, 73; Davidson, 

*52-59- 
A. The philosophical brotherhood at Crotona. 

a. Aim : to render the soul harmonious. 

b. Principles : number ; order ; harmony. 

c. Method : to memorize maxims. 

2. Socrates (469-399 b.c). Kemp, 73-76; Painter, 

63-67 (old edition, 56-60); Williams, 
153-164; Seeley, 61-63; Davidson, 
*I07~H3; °I03-I27; Monroe, 122-130 
{Brief Course, 60-63); Compayr£, 22-27. 

A. His character. 

B. Relation to the sophists. 

a. Agreed with them in their skepticism 
regarding the external world. 

b. Opposed their skepticism respecting the 
internal world of moral notions. 



GREEK EDUCATION 15 

C. Educational aim. 

a. To emphasize the problems of con- 
duct. 

b. To develop moral concepts as a ground 
of moral action. 

c. The conception that to know the right 
is to do the right. 

D. The Socratic method. 

a. Self-examination in order to take stock 
of one's knowledge (note the likeness 
of this procedure to the formal step of 
preparation). 

b. Examination of others by the conversa- 
tional method (dialectic). 

a. Suggestive questioning (maieutic) 
to elicit the latent ideas of the modest 
and backward. 

/3. Ironical questioning (the Socratic 
irony) to overcome the stubborn opinions 
of the ignorant. 

c. The inductive development of the moral 
concept. 

d. The bond between teacher and learner : 
enthusiasm for moral truth (eros or in- 
tellectual emotion). 

E. Socrates' influence. 

a. On his contemporaries. 

b. On the development of Greek philos- 
ophy. 

c. On educational theory. 

Xenophon (434"357 °r later B.C.). Painter, 
50-54 (old edition, 23-24); Davidson, 



16 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

*i 14-132; Monroe, Source Book, 35- 
50, 120-128; Compayre, 34-36; Painter, 
*6i-82. 

A. Educational theory as presented in the 

Cyropcedia. 

a. Ostensibly the training of the Persian 
nobleman. 

b. Really an advocacy of the Spartan mili- 
tary training. 

B. Training of the housewife as given in the 

Economics. 
a. Domestic education by apprenticeship 
similar to that in vogue at Athens. 
4. Plato (427-347 B.C.). Kemp, 77-78; Painter, 
67-73 (old edition, 60-62); *7~32 ; Wil- 
liams, 165-175; Seeley, 63-65; David- 
son, *i33-i5o; °i28-i5i ; Monroe, 130- 
146 {Brief Course, 63-68); * 129-264; 
Compayre, 27-34. 

A. Biography. 

B. Plato's philosophy : the Theory of Ideas. 

C. Plato's educational theory. 

a. As presented in the Republic. 
a. Conception of the ideal state. 

1) Aim : to organize so as to permit 
perfect justice. 

2) Form: intellectual aristocracy, 
ruled by philosophers. 

3) Economic organization: a com- 
munism. 

4) Social orders : rulers ; warriors ; 
producers. 



GREEK EDUCATION 17 

/3. Education as a function of the state, 
i) The child belongs to the state. 

2) Periods: childhood; youth; 
young manhood (20-30), a period for 
correlating knowledge; 30-35, a period 
for the study of philosophy. 

3) Curriculum: gymnastic; culture 
studies ("music"), including literature, 
music, and the arts as preparatory sub- 
jects, and arithmetic, geometry, astron- 
omy, and harmony as special preparation 
for abstract thinking ; philosophy. 

4) Education of women practically 
that of men. 

b. Modifications made in the Laws. 

a. The philosophical ruler replaced by 
hereditary monarchy. 
£. Education less like the Spartan and 
more like the Athenian system. 

1) Education to be supervised by a 
state official. 

2) Curriculum : birth to 3, training 
by nurse; 3-6, age of play; 6, sexes 
segregated; 6-10, gymnastic; 10-13, 
reading and writing ; 13-16, music; later, 

' higher gymnastic, dancing, mathematical 
sciences, and religion. 
D. Plato's influence. 

a. Upon philosophy. 

b. Upon educational history. 

5. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Kemp, 79~8o; 
Painter, 73-77 (° ld edition, 62-65); 



1 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

*33-6o; Williams, 176-186; Seeley, 65- 
67; Davidson, * 153-202; ° 152-176; Lau- 
rie, 295-300; Monroe, 146-160 {Brief 
Course, 68-73); ^265-294; Compayre, 
36-40. 

A. Biography. 

B. Theory of the state. 

a. It exists for the promotion of well-being. 
a. Hence it must provide conditions 
necessary to well-being, one of which is 
education. 

C. Theory of education presented in the Poli- 

tics. 

a. Education is the foundation of various 
forms of state. 

b. Aim of education : temperate enjoyment 
of cultured and virtuous leisure. 

c. Periods : birth to 5, age of play ; 5-7, 
period of observation of pursuits to be 
followed later ; 7 to puberty ; puberty to 
21. 

d. Curriculum. 

a. Practical subjects : reading; writing ; 
drawing. 

/3. Liberal subjects : music, as an amuse- 
ment, as modifying character, and as an 
occupation for leisure. 

D. Aristotle's influence. 

a. Upon philosophy. 

b. Upon science. 

c. Upon method. 

d. Upon educational history. 



GREEK EDUCATION 19 

VI. Cosmopolitan Greek Education (338-146 b.c). 
Davidson, *205~2I3 ; ° 177-202 ; Monroe, 
\60-\7 2 {Brief Course, 73-78); *295~326. 

1. The spread of Greek culture beyond the fron- 

tiers of Greece. 

A. Conquest of Greece by Philip of Macedon 

(Battle of Chseronea, 338 b.c). 

B. Expansion of the Macedonian Empire 

under Alexander the Great. 
a. Hellenization of the East and Egypt. 

2. Graeco-Egyptian culture under the Ptolemies 

(323-30 B.C.). 

A. The University (Library and Museum) of 

Alexandria. 

B. Character of the Alexandrian learning. 
a. Advance in scientific directions. 

a. Euclid (323-283 B.C.). 

13. Archimedes (287-212 b.c). 

7. Ptolemy the Astronomer (?-i68 

A.D.). 

VII. Aspects of Greek Culture having an indirect Influ- 
ence upon Education. 

1. The national games: Olympian; Pythian; 

Nemean; Isthmian. 

2. Literature and the drama. 

A. The Greeks either originated or developed 
the chief permanent forms of prose 
and poetry. 

3. Art. 

4. Philosophy. 

5. Science. 



20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

References. Davidson, * Aristotle and the Ancient 
Educational Ideals ; Davidson, ° The Education of the 
Greek People; Painter, * Great Pedagogical Essays ; 
Monroe, * Source Book of the History of Education: 
Greek and Roman Period. For other references consult 
the list following Oriental Education. 



ROMAN EDUCATION 

The Romans were the second Aryan race to develop 
a high type of civilization upon European soil. In a 
considerable measure they took up the work of develop- 
ing European culture where the Greeks left it. Their 
most important characteristics were as follows : first, 
they were practical rather than idealistic ; second, they 
were remarkable social organizers ; third, they respected 
law and social order; fourth, they exhibited unusual 
talent in assimilating other races to their own institu- 
tions, and in availing themselves of the best features in the 
institutions of conquered peoples ; fifth, though imitative 
rather than original in art, literature, and philosophy, 
they nevertheless contributed to the development of 
these fields by the selective assimilation of the efforts of 
other nations. 

I. Introductory Points. 

i. Geography of Rome and Italy as influencing 

the social life. 
2. Social organization. Laurie, 309-315. 

A. Importance of the family. 

B. The classes. 

a. The plebeians or commons — at first 
without civil rights (until 300 B.C.). 

b. The patricians or nobles. 



22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

3. Religion. Laurie, 303-309. 

A. A nature-worship similar to that of the 

Greeks, only more abstract, developed 
along with the ancestor-worship. 

B. Later, the influence of Greek literature 

and religious thought modified the earlier 
Roman religion and assimilated it to the 
Greek mythology. 

4. The Romans as the world's first great social 

organizers and law-givers. 

5. Influence of the war spirit on Roman culture. 

A. Introduction of slavery. 

B. Growth of great landed estates, widening 

the breach between rich and poor. 

C. Widening area of Roman sovereignty. 

a. Early conquest of the Latins, Sabines, 
and Etruscans. 

b. Rome mistress of Italy by 266 B.C. 

c. Greece practically conquered by 168 B.C. 
(Battle of Pydna.) 

d. Corinth (Greece) and Carthage (Africa) 
destroyed, 146 B.C. 

^./Western Asia Minor a province by 133 
/b.c 
\f. Gaul (modern France) conquered by 50 

B.C. 

g. At the time of the birth of Christ Rome 
was in practical possession of all south- 
ern Europe, western Asia, and most of 
northern Africa. 

h. Jerusalem destroyed in 70 a.d. 

u Britain overrun by 85 a.d. 



ROMAN EDUCATION 23 

II. Primitive Education at Rome (about 500-300 
b.c). Kemp, 84-85 ; Painter, 77-80 
(old edition, 65-67); Williams, 187-200; 
Davidson, 106-108; Laurie, 319-323; 
Monroe, 176-193 {Brief Course, 81-88); 
*327-345 ; Compayre, 43-45- 

1 . Economic type : the shepherd and husbandman. 

2. Education entirely domestic. 

A. Moral and religious training through heroic 

legends. 

B. Patriotism taught by national hymns and 

songs. 

C. The boys learned farming and herding 

from the father. 

D. The girls learned household duties from 

the mother. 

E. Apprenticeship the method, imitation the 

psychological principle. 

3. Citizenship as a continuance of education. 

4. Literature : The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

III. Early Organization of Education Under Greek In- 
fluence (about 300-146 b.c). Kemp, 
85-87; Painter, 80-81 (old edition, 68- 
69; Williams, 201-204; Seeley, 74-80; 
Davidson, 109; Laurie, 323-329; Mon- 
roe, 193-197 (Brief Course, 88-90); 
*346-370; Compayre, 45. 
1. The coming of Greek slaves and freedmen to 
Rome, between 260 and 200 b.c, to 
open private schools. 
A. Spurius Carvilius opened the first school 
of which a record remains, 260 b.c 



24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

2. Earliest Latin literature. 

A. Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

B. Historical poem by Cnaius Naevius (writ- 

ten about 240 B.C.). 

C. Translation of Homer's Odyssey into Latin 

by Livius Andrpnicus (about the same 
date as Naevius's poem). 

3. Kinds of schools. 

A. Elementary : the Indus y taught by the lit- 

erator (ludimagister), was like the 
Athenian didaskaleion {inusic-school), 
taught by the grammatist. 
a. Curriculum : alphabet ; conversational 
Greek ; writing ; arithmetic. 

B. Secondary : more advanced education was 

given by the literatus ( grammaticus). 

a. The first recorded was established by 
Livius Andronicus (about 250 B.C.). 

b. Curriculum : writing ; grammar ; read- 
ing and literature ; arithmetic ; geome- 
try ; astronomy ; geography ; music ; 
gymnastic. 

IV. Period of the Complete Dominance of Greek In- 
fluence (146 B.C. to 180 a.d.). Kemp, 
88 ; Painter, 81-85 (old edition, 70-71) ; 
Williams, 204-233; Davidson, 110-111; 
Laurie, 330-335 ; Monroe, 197-206 
(Brief Course, 90-95); * 37 'I -420. 
1. With the fall of Corinth (146 b.c) Greece be- 
came a province of Rome and completely 
hellenized Roman intellectual life, the 



ROMAN EDUCATION 25 

two peoples becoming in point of culture 
one. 

2. Kinds of schools. 

A. Introduction of the pedagogue. 

B. The Indus and grammatical-school re- 

mained much the same as in the preced- 
ing period, though they were more 
completely organized. Laurie, 336-340. 

C. Higher education. 

a. Rhetorical-schools and the rhetor. 
Laurie, 341-343; 348-354- 

b. Philosophical schools. 

c. Libraries and universities. Laurie, 393- 

394. 

3. Development of Roman literature. 

A. The Ciceronian Era. 

B. The Augustan Age. 

C. The Silver Age. 

4. Methods and discipline. Laurie, 343-344; 

347-354- 

5. Teachers and schoolhouses. Laurie, 344-346. 

6. State support of education. Monroe, 204-206 

{Brief Course , 94-95). 

V. The Decadent Period (180-476 a. d.). Laurie, 389- 
401; Monroe, 208-218 {Brief Course, 
96-99). 

1. Degeneracy of Roman society due to wealth 

and debauchery. 

2. Culture grew superficial in proportion as it 

grew more general. 

3. Increased support of schools by the state. 



26 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

4. Their extension to the provinces, especially 
Gaul. 

VI. Educational Theorists. 

1. Cicero (107-43 b.c). Painter, 85-89 (old edi- 

tion, 71-73); *83-96; Williams, 237-240; 
Seeley, 81-84; Laurie, 350-352; Mon- 
roe, *42 1-444. 

A. The orator as the cultured type is empha- 

sized in the De Oratore. 

B. Cicero's pedagogy. 

a. Companions and environment to be 
carefully selected because early sense- 
impressions and play-activities develop 
habits. 

b. Hardships should be experienced in order 
to develop patience. 

c. The feelings need careful direction so 
as to develop a moral sense, a sense of 
honor, and laudable ambition. 

d. Memory should be cultivated by mne- 
monics and memorizing choice passages. 

e. The vocation should be chosen with ref- 
erence to the tastes and powers. 

f. Special training for the orator : expres- 
sion ; law ; history ; philosophy ; Greek. 

g. The moral aim in education should be 
made prominent. 

2. Seneca (3 b.c. to 65 a.d.). Painter, 89-93 (old 

edition, 74-76); *97~ 1 02 ; Williams, 240- 
244; Seeley, 84-86. 
A. In philosophy a stoic, his educational theo- 



ROMAN EDUCATION 27 

4 ries were influenced by the doctrines 
of that school. 
B. Educational theory (found in his philo- 
sophical essays). 

a. Aim : character. 

b. Natural tendencies can in a considerable 
degree be modified. 

c. Discipline should be mild and relations 
between teacher and pupil harmonious. 

d. Example is better than precept. 

e. Education should fit for life's needs and 
duties. 

f. Concentration of effort the keynote to 
good results in learning. 

Quintilian (35-95 a.d.). Kemp, 88-89; Painter, 
93-97 (old edition, 76-79); *I03-I24; 
Williams, 244-254; Seeley, 86-88 ; Da- 
vidson, *2i4-224; Laurie, 355-389; 
Monroe, 207-208 ; *445~509 ; Compayr6, 
47-52 ; Browning, 26-34. 

A. Educational theories, presented in the 
Institutes of Oratory. 

a. Elementary education. 

a. Early training (Bk. I, i) : nurse ; 
pedagogue; parent. 

/3. Method (Bk. I, ii-iii): Greek be- 
fore Latin ; alphabet ; writing (tracing 
letter-forms cut in a board) ; reading 
(synthetic method) ; memorizing of max- 
ims and mottoes ; management of pupils ; 
public preferable to private education. 

b. Secondary (grammatical) education. 



28 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

a. Curriculum (Bk. I, x) : music ; geome- 
try ; astronomy. 
c. Higher education (Bks. II and XII) : 
philosophy ; rhetoric ; eloquence. 

References. Browning, Educational Theories. 
For other references consult the lists following Orien- 
tal and Greek Education. 



PART THREE 
MEDLEVAL EDUCATION 



MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 

This period represents the efforts of the Celtic and 
Teutonic branches of the Aryan race to develop a type 
of culture the fundamental principles of which were bor- 
rowed from the Hebrews. The religious and moral 
conceptions of the Middle Ages were of Jewish origin. 
These conceptions were, however, transmitted to the 
Celts and Teutons through the medium of the Graeco- 
Roman civilization. Hence many elements derived 
from classical culture modified the pure Hebraism in 
the process of transmission. The dominant thought 
throughout the period was that culture should take the 
form of moral and religious discipline. There was also 
another important conception : that society is an organi- 
zation under the control of a religious hierarchy having 
the prerogative of absolute jurisdiction over all cultural 
forces. 

I. Culture and the Early Church (to 529 a.d.). 
Kemp, 97-108; Painter, 102-118 (old 
edition, 80-93); *I43-I54; Williams, 
39-54; Seeley, 89-115 ; Davidson, 121- 
132; Laurie, 18-38; Monroe, 221-243; 
°ioi-iio; Compayre, 61-67. 

1. Educational bearings of Christ's doctrines. 

2. Tendency of the early Christians towards as- 

ceticism. 

31 



32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

A. Attitude toward Graeco-Roman (" pagan ") 
learning. 
a. Opinions of the Church Fathers : Clem- 
ent of Alexandria ; Tertullian ; Chrys- 
ostom ; Jerome ; Augustine. 

3. First schools organized by the Christians. 

A. Teaching in the Apostolic Age. 

B. Catechetical schools (beginning about 

l80 A.D.). 

C. Early episcopal (cathedral) schools. 

4. Abolition of philosophical schools by decree 

of the Emperor Justinian (529 a.d.). 

II. The Monastic Type of Education (5th to nth cen- 
turies a.d.). Kemp, 109-12 1 ; Painter, 
1 18-122 (old edition, 99-104) ; Williams, 
56-58; Seeley, 1 16-120; Davidson, 
*239~247 ; Laurie, 54-74 ; Monroe, 243- 
274; ° 1 10-124; West, 4-27. 

1. Parish (parochial) schools. 

2. Cathedral schools. 

3. The monasteries. 

A. Rise of monasticism. 

a. Saint Anthony's example. 

b. Cassian founded St. Victor (404 a.d.). 

c. St. Benedict founded the Benedictine 
order (529 a.d.). 

B. Famous monasteries : Monte Cassino 

(founded by St. Benedict), Italy ; Tours, 
France ; Fulda, Germany ; Wearmouth 
and Yarrow, England ; Iona, Scotland ; 
Armagh (founded by St. Patrick), Ireland. 



MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 33 

C. Educational organization. 

a. Inner school for the oblati. 

b. Older school for the externi. 

c. The scriptorium and the copying of 
manuscripts. 

D. The curriculum. 

a. Elementary : alphabet; writing; reading 
and memorizing Latin psalter ; memoriz- 
ing Latin vocabulary ; Latin grammar ; 
singing church service ; elementary arith- 
metic. 

b. Trivium and quadrivium (Seven Lib- 
eral Arts). 

a. Trivium (secondary) : grammar ; 
rhetoric ; dialectic (logic). 

/3. Quadrivium (advanced) : arithmetic ; 
geometry ; astronomy ; music (dialectic 
was usually continued as an additional 
study). 
4. Education of women. Kemp, 116; Painter, 
129-130 (old edition, 111-112); Wil- 
liams, 59. 

III. Nationalization of Ecclesiastical Education (8th 
and 9th centuries a. d.). Kemp, 122-125 ; 
Painter, 122-125 (old edition, 104-106); 
*i 55-168; Williams, 62-90; Seeley, 
125-131 ; Davidson, 151-158; Laurie, 
39-53; Monroe, 274-279; °I25-I28 ; 
Compayre, 71-73; West, 1-3, 28-179. 
1. Charlemagne and Alcuin's educational revival 
in Frankland. 



34 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

A. Religious education as the basis for the 

Frankish Empire. 

B. Alcuin as minister of education. 

C. The Palace School. 

D. Plans for reform of the church service and 

parochial instruction. 
a. Charlemagne's capitularies (proclama- 
tions) of 787, 789, and 802 a.d. 
2. Alfred the Great's (849-901 a.d.) attempt to 
emulate Charlemagne in England. 

IV. Development of Types of Secular Education Dur- 
ing the Later Middle Ages (12th to 15th 
centuries a.d.). 
1. Influence of the Crusades. (First Crusade 
begun in 1096; the Ninth and last in 
1270 a.d.) Painter, 126 (old edition, 
107); Williams, 108-110; Seeley, 

136-138. 

A. Purpose : to rescue Christ's sepulcher and 

the Holy Land from the Saracens 
(Mohammedans). 

B. Cultural effects. 

a. Enlarged the mental horizon of the 
Christian peoples by bringing them into 
contact with strange customs and modes 
of thought. 

b. Stimulus to travel and commerce. 

c. Gave an impetus to chivalry. 

d. Brought European nations into contact 
with Saracen learning. 

C. Though initiated in furtherance of Chris- 



MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 35 

tianity, the Crusades were largely a 
secular movement under the leadership 
of the great feudal lords. 
2. Chivalry (nth to the 15th centuries a.d.). 
Kemp, 132-136; Painter, 126-128 (old 
edition, 107-110); Williams, 95-104; 
Seeley, 132-135; Monroe, 284-291; 
°i 4 7-i50. 

A. Character of chivalry: assertion of the 

claims of the natural man represented 
in the romantic figures of knight and 
lady in opposition to the ascetic ideal 
that dominated the churchman. 

B. The knight's code of service : love ; honor; 

loyalty ; piety. 

a. Minor virtues growing out of these : 
courtesy; obedience; prowess; respect 
for woman ; self-surrender. 

b. Influence of these ideals in determining 
the modern concepts of the gentleman 
and the lady. 

C. Training of the knight and lady. 

a. The Castle School. 

b. Periods. 
a. Page. 
/3. Squire. 

7. The ceremony of knighting. 

c. Curriculum. 

a. The seven knightly accomplishments : 
swimming ; marksmanship ; horseman- 
ship ; swordsmanship ; hunting ; chess- 
playing; verse-making. 



36 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

fi. The accomplishments of the gen- 
tlewoman : horsemanship ; falconry ; 
needlework; playing on stringed instru- 
ments ; singing ; reading ; writing ; 
Latin ; French ; etiquette ; poetry ; reli- 
gion. 
D. Influence of chivalry upon the develop- 
ment of modern literature. 

a. The troubadours and trouveres of France. 

b. The minnesingers of Germany. 

c. The minstrels of the British Isles. 

3. Scholasticism (9th to 14th centuries a.d.). 
Kemp, 126-129; Williams, 143-146; 
Seeley, 121-124; Davidson, 159-165; 
Monroe, 292-313; °I28-I38 ; Compayre, 
74-75; * 1 8-23. 

A. Aim : a logical solution of theological prob- 

lems. 

B. The scholastic problems. 

a. The relation of faith and reason as 
media of truth. 

b. Doctrine of universals (the most general 
and abstract concepts). 

a. Realism: adherence to Plato's theory 
that universals (Platonic Ideas) are the 
only reals, and exist as archetypes (pat- 
terns) in the Divine Mind (" Universalia 
ante rem "). 

/3. Nominalism: adherence to Aristotle's 
doctrine that universals exist only in in- 
dividuals, and have no reality apart from 
them (" Universalia in re"). 



MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 37 

7. Conceptualism: universals exist only 
as concepts produced by, and in, the 
human mind (" Universalia post rem "). 

C. Method : somewhat like the Socratic dialec- 

tic, employing Aristotle's logic in applica- 
tion to barren and impractical questions. 

D. Principal schoolmen (scholastics) : Erigena 

Q-886); Anselm (1033-1109); Abelard 
(1079-1142); Albertus Magnus (1 193— 
1280); Thomas Aquinas (1225 ?- 1274); 
Bonaventura (1 221-1274). 

E. Results of scholasticism. 

4. The university movement (12th to 15th cen- 
turies a.d.). Kemp, 138-144; Painter, 
133-138 (old edition, 11 5-1 17); Williams, 
113-161 ; Seeley, 139-142; Davidson, 
166-174; Laurie, 91-293 ; Monroe, 313- 
327; °I38-I47; Compayre, *3-306. 

A. Causes of the movement. 

B. Licentia docendi and studium generate. 

C. Charter : privileges and seal. 

D. Organization: nations; faculty; officers. 

E. Curriculum and method. 

F. Date of founding the principal mediaeval 

universities: Salerno, c. n 00; Bologna, 
1 1 58; Oxford, c. 1 140; Paris, c. 11 80; 
Cambridge, 1200; Prague, 1348. 

G. Results of the university movement. 

a. Comparatively meager in method and 
curriculum. 

b. Served as types of later university 
organization. 



38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

c. Broke the bondage of ecclesiastical con- 
trol over education. 

5. Mohammedan (Saracen ; Moslim) culture in 

contact with mediaeval education (10th 
to 1 2th centuries a.d.). Kemp, 130- 
132; Painter, 132-133 (old edition, 114); 
Williams, 110-112; Seeley, 143-147; 
Davidson, 133-150; Laurie, 88-90; 
Monroe, 331-334 5 ° 154-155- 

A. The Caliphs as patrons of learning. 

B. Influence of Aristotle's writings upon the 

Arabian scholars. 

C. Tendencies of their learning. 

a. Philosophical speculations tinged with 
mysticism. 

b. Scientific interest mingled with magic. 

D. Their schools and libraries in the cities of 

Moorish Spain. 

a. Places of free inquiry. 

b. Resort of Christian students to them. 

E. General result upon Christian thought : 

tended to free education from ecclesias- 
tical dominance. 

6. Corporate elementary schools : guild and 

burgher schools (nth to 14th centuries). 
Kemp, 136-137; Painter, 128-129 (old 
edition, 1 1 o- 1 1 1 ) ; Williams, 1 04- 1 08 ; 
Monroe, 338-339 5 °i 5^-1 57- 

A. These schools met a demand for a practical 

type of education suited to the needs 
of a commercial class. 

B. Thus they may be conceived as the early 



MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION 39 

forerunner of the people's school (" com- 
mon-school " or public school) of modern 
times. 

References. Williams, History of Mediceval Education ; 
Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities ; Monroe, 
°A Brief Course in the History of Education ; West, Alctiin 
and the Rise of the Christian Schools ; Compayr6, * Abe- 
lard and the Origin and Early History of Universities. 

For other references consult the lists following Orien- 
tal, Greek, and Roman education. 



PART FOUR 
MODERN EDUCATION 



MODERN EDUCATION 

The modern period in education exhibits the develop- 
ment of the European nations which resulted from their 
assimilation of the chief contributions of antiquity and the 
Middle Ages. From the Hebrews had come the religion 
— by the beginning of the modern period pretty well 
modified to the Aryan race-temperament; from the 
Greeks the sense of proportion and the feeling for 
beauty ; from the Romans the legal and institutional 
aspects of civilization ; from the Middle Ages the view 
that life is disciplinary and preparatory, — therefore a 
trying of moral issues. The great nations of Europe 
had pretty definitely determined their boundaries. At 
the dawn of the modern period a new continent was dis- 
covered. The situation was propitious for the manifes- 
tation of the genius of the Aryan people — progress. 
Hence our study of modern education will bring us into 
a swift-moving current of progressive change. 

First : The Transition Period 

I. Historical Changes which Influenced the Beginnings 
of Modern Education. Kemp, 149-150, 
153 ; Painter, 139 (old edition, 1 19-120) ; 
Williams, 16-25; Seeley, 148-15 1 ; 
Davidson, 175-179; Monroe, 351-357; 
* 160-163. 

43 



44 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

1. Revolt against the monastic ideal and the 

scholastic method of the Middle Ages. 

2. Demand for religious latitude and personal 

freedom of belief. 

3. Growth of the idea that human reason employed 

upon natural phenomena is the source of 
truth. 
A. This conception opened the way for the 
modern scientific spirit. 

4. Decline of the feudal system, which was dis- 

placed by the modern conception of the 
responsibility of government to the 
governed. 

5. Establishment of modern nations upon lines 

determined by the natural cleavage con- 
sequent upon the development of modern 
languages and literatures. 

6. Substitution of the Copernican theory of the 

solar system (heliocentric, i.e. the sun the 
center) for the erroneous Ptolemaic 
theory (geocentric, i.e. the earth the 
center). 
A. Influence of the changed point of view 
upon religious thought. 

7. Early attempts to substitute experiment and 

induction for dogmas and deduction. 
A. The monk, Roger Bacon (1214-c. 1294). 

8. Great geographical discoveries. 

A. Marco Polo (1236-1324) and Sir John 
Mandeville (1 300-1 372) directed atten- 
tion to the Orient and aroused interest 
in a sea route thither. 



MODERN EDUCATION 45 

B. Columbus discovered America (1492). 

C. Magellan circumnavigated the globe (15 19- 

1521), proving the sphericity of the earth 
beyond all doubt. 

D. Early colonization in America (17th cen- 

tury). 
9. Important inventions. 

A. Gunpowder (first authentic record of use 

in Europe dates from the early 14th 
century) : its use in war changed the 
tactical unit, and gave more place to 
generalship than to mere brute force of 
numbers. 

B. Mariner's compass (perfected and used by 

the 14th century): made navigation a 
science. 
C Printing by movable type begun (1438) by 
Gutenberg of Germany. 

a. The first complete printed book was a 
Bible, printed by Gutenberg at Mentz, 
Germany, in 1455. 

b. Printing was introduced into other Eu- 
ropean countries during the last third 
of the fifteenth century. 

II. The Humanistic Movement (Renaissance; Revival 
of Learning) (14th to 16th cenutries 
a.d.). Kemp, 149-161 ; Painter, 140- 
153 (old edition, 120-135); Williams, 13- 
14, 20-48, 56-65 ; Seeley, 148-163 ; 
Monroe, 357-400; *i63~i88; Compayre, 
83-1 n; Browning, 35-50; Quick, 1-26. 



46 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

i. Causes. 

A. General : demand for a content of culture 

to take the place of the discarded mediae- 
val learning. 
a. Since there was no body of scientific 
doctrine, it was natural to turn to the 
past and seek this content in the classi- 
cal literatures. 

B. Specific : the taking of Constantinople 

(ancient Byzantium) by the Turks in 
1453 forced the Greek scholars of that 
city to take refuge in Italy. 
a. Constantinople had for centuries been 
the repository of Greek texts, which 
were now transported to Italy. 
2. Humanism in Italy. 

A. Pioneers of the movement: Dante (1265- 

132 1 a.d.); Petrarch (1304- 13 74); Boc- 
caccio (1313-1375); Chrysoloras (1355- 
1415). 

B. Political and ecclesiastical support of the 

movement. 

a. Cosimo de Medici (1 389-1464), and the 
Florentine renaissance. 

b. Tommaso Parentucelli (Pope Nicholas 
V) (1389-1455; pope, 1447-1455), the 
founder of the Vatican Library. 

c. yEneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius 
II) (1405-1464; pope, 1458-1464). 

C. The humanistic educators of Italy. 

a. Vittorino da Feltre (1 379-1446). 

b. Petrus Paulus Vergerius (1349-?). 



MODERN EDUCATION 47 

c. Battista Guarino (1434-1460). 
D. Effects of the Italian renaissance upon 
culture. 

3. Humanism in Germany and the Netherlands. 

A. Pioneers of the movement among the 

Brethren of the Common Life. 

a. John Wessel (1420-1489). 

b. Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485). 

c. John Reuchlin (1455-1522). 

B. Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536). 

a. His efforts in behalf of classical scholar- 
ship. 

b. His writings on education. 

a. On the First Liberal Education of 
Children, 
ft. On the Order of Studies. 

C. Results : the German renaissance merged 

with the Protestant Reformation. 

4. Humanism in England. 

A. Resort of Oxford students to Italy between 

1450 and 1500. 

B. Erasmus in England. 

C. The great English humanists. 

a. Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). 

b. John Colet (1466-15 19). 

III. the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Coun- 
ter Reformation (16th and 17th centu- 
ries A.D.). 
1 . The educational aspects of the Protestant Refor- 
mation. Kemp, 162-181; Painter, 153- 
187 (old edition, 135-166); *i69~i86; 



48 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Williams, 52-55, 91-106; Seeley, 164- 
181; Monroe, 401-420,433-437; *i89~ 
201, 207-212; Compayre, 11 2-1 20; 
Quick, 27-32. 

A. The Reformation an outgrowth of the de- 

mand for intellectual liberty manifested 
in the Renaissance. 

B. Educational work of Martin Luther (1483- 

1546). 

a. His theological doctrine of justification 
by faith and works involved an en- 
lightened conscience ; hence involved 
education. 

b. Sketch of a state system to include 
primary schools, Latin schools, and 
universities. 

c. Circular letters and sermons. 

a. Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen 
of all the Cities of Germany in behalf of 
Christian Schools (1524). 

/3. Sermon on the Duty of sending Chil- 
dren to School (1530). 

C. Philip Melanchthon as an organizer of 

schools (1497- 1 560). 

a. Organization of schools under Melanch- 
thon's advice at Magdeburg (1524), 
Strassburg (1524), and Eisleben (1525). 

b. Saxony the first German state to organ- 
ize a system of schools under Melanch- 
thon's direction. 

a. Melanchthon as Visitor (inspector) 
to the schools and churches of Saxony. 



MODERN EDUCATION 49 

ft. His suggestions presented in The 
Saxony School Plan ( 1528) . 
c. Melanchthon's text-books. 
D. John Sturm as the organizer of the German 
gymnasium (1507— 1589). 

a. His work as rector of the Strassburg 
gymnasium (1 537-1 582). 

a. His organization of classes and cur- 
riculum. 

b. Educational writings : Plan ; Classical 
Letters ; Examination. 

E Influence of the German Reformation upon 

secondary and university education. 
F. The English Reformation. 

a. Suppression of the monasteries by 

Henry VIII (I536-I539)- 

b. Conversion of monastic schools into 
schools of the Church of England. 

c. Some great classical (" public ") schools 
founded as a result of the English Ref- 
ormation: Shrewsbury (is S l )y Westmin- 
ster (1560); Rugby (1567); Harrow 
(1571); Merchant Taylors' (1561); Char- 
terhouse (1609) ; Christ's Hospital (1619). 

d. The aristocratic tendency in English 
education dates from this period. 

2. The Catholic reaction against the Protestant 
Reformation (the "Counter Reforma- 
tion."). Kemp, 184-192, 229-234; 
Painter, 187-194, 238-244 (old edition, 
166-173,224-227); *i87-202; Williams, 
113-117, 186-190, 242-247, 253-254, 



50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

352-353; Seeley, 182-189, 227-229; 
Davidson, 183-189; Monroe, 420-433, 
437-439; *20i-207, 212-214; Com- 
payre, 138-163, 258-277; Browning, 
1.18-134; Quick, 33-62, 172-196; Mun- 
roe, 124-147; Hughes, 1-294. 

A. The Jesuits (Society of Jesus) . (Organized 

in 1540.) 

a. Aim ; to check Protestantism by organ- 
izing a missionary and teaching order. 

b. Ignatius Loyola, the founder (1491- 
- 1556). 

c. The Jesuit system of schools. 

a. General similarity of the curriculum 
to that of the Protestant gymnasia. 

/3. Attention confined to secondary and 
collegiate instruction. 

7. The Ratio Studiorum. 

8. The two courses : Studia inferiora 
(5 to 7 years); Studia superior a (6 to 9 
years) . 

e. Method : prelection ; erudition ; repe- 
tition ; disputation. 

?. Emphasis of memory and emulation. 

7). Class organization : decuricz ; acade- 
mies. 

6. Special training of teachers both in 
subject-matter and practice. 

c. Language and literary form overem- 
phasized. 

B. The Oratorians (Oratory of Jesus). 

(Founded in France in 16 14.) 



MODERN EDUCATION 51 

a. Devoted themselves to secondary edu- 
cation. 

b. Curriculum emphasized the vernacular, 
the sciences, history, and philosophy. 

c. Prepared mainly for the priesthood. 

d. Methods less rigid than those of the 
Jesuits. 

C. The Jansenists (Port Royal Schools). 

(Flourished from 1637-1661.) 

a. Founded by Duvergier de Hauranne 
(St. Cyran) (1 581-1643). 

b. Prominent members : La Fontaine 
(1621-1695); Arnauld(i6i2-i694); Pas- 
cal (1623-1662); Nicole (1625-1695). 

c. The Little Schools. 

a. Their realistic tendencies : vernacu- 
lar ; excursions ; natural methods. 

D. The Brethren of the Christian Schools. 

(Founded in 1684.) 

a. Jean Baptiste de la Salle, founder of the 
order (1651-1719). 

b. The Condtict of Schools. 

c. The " institutes " (schools) of the Order. 
a. Purpose : elementary instruction of 

the poorer classes. 

/3. Rigid rules, — especially that re- 
quiring silence on the part of both 
teachers and pupils. 

7. Restrictive and repressive discipline. 

h. " Simultaneous " recitation (by 
classes) introduced as a novelty ; this 
required careful grading. 



52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

e. Thorough theoretical and practical 
training of elementary teachers in their 
own normal schools. 

f. Curriculum: reading; writing; arith- 
metic ; religious instruction ; a little 
Latin. 

Second: The Period of Educational Reform 
I. The Realistic Movement (i 6th and 17th centuries 

A.D.). 

1. Realism defined: Educational realism is the 

substitution of the study of things {the 
real and the practical ) for that of abstract 
ideas about things. 

2. Francois Rabelais (1483-1553). Kemp, 194; 

Williams, 74-80; Seeley, 192-195; Mon- 
roe, 442-448; *2 1 5-2 19; Compayre, 
91-100; Browning, 68-79; Quick, 63- 
69; Munroe, 8-35. 

A. Satirized scholastic method and content of 

education. 
a. Writings which present his educational 
views. 

a. Life of Gargantua (Chs. xiii-xix and 
xxi-xxiv). 

/3. Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel (Chs. 
v-viii). 

B. Realistic tendencies. 

a. Aim : an all-round culture for efficiency 
through the medium of the classics and 
science. 



MODERN EDUCATION 53 

b. Method: cultivation of the powers of 
observation ; enlistment of interest ; 
study made agreeable ; rote-learning 
avoided ; mild discipline. 

3. Roger Ascham(i5i5--i 568). Kemp, 181-183 

Painter, *228-239 ; Williams, 106-107 
Seeley, 190-192 ; Monroe, 382-385 
*i79-i8o; Browning, 85-90; Quick, 
80-89; Ascham, The Scholemaster 
(Heath's Pedagogical Library). 

A. Work on education (first treatise on the 

subject in English): The Scholemaster. 

B. Aim : Latin to be studied for its content. 

C. Method: "double" translation (emphasiz- 

ing imitation). 

D. Discipline to be mild and based upon a sym- 

pathetic insight into the pupil's nature. 

E. Education to be tutorial. 

4. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1 533-1 592). 

Kemp, 195-197; Painter, 196-200 (old 
edition, 175-179); *203-227; Williams, 
80-90; Seeley, 195-198; Monroe, 455— 
461; *22i-226; Compayre, ioo-iio; 
Browning, 79-85; Quick, 70-79; Mun- 
roe, 95-101 ; Montaigne, The Education 
of Children (Appleton's International 
Education Series). 

A . Works on education : Of the Education of 

Children; Of Pedantry ; Of the Affection 
of Fathers ; Of Habit ; History. 

B. Influenced particularly by ancient educa- 

tional theory and by Rabelais. 



54 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

C. Aim : to develop character and wisdom 

rather than knowledge. 

D. Method: tutorial instruction. 

E. Discipline should be mild and in accordance 

with child-nature. 

5. John Milton (1608-1674). Kemp, 217; 

Painter, 207-213 (old edition, 188-194); 
*240-254; Williams, 191-202; Seeley 
217-220; Monroe, 448-451; *2i9~22o; 
Browning, 90-102; Quick, 212-218; 
Milton, A Tractate on Education (Brown- 
ing, editor ; Pitt Press Series ; Cam- 
bridge University Press). 

A. Writing on education : A Tractate on Edu- 

cation. 

B. Often called a " verbal-realist " because he 

advocated the classics as a means of 
acquiring useful knowledge. 

C. Aim : " To know God aright, and out of 

that knowledge to love him, to imitate him " 
(Milton's Tractate). 

D. Emphasis upon military exercises as a 

means of physical training. 

E. Plan for an institution to include all grades 

from the primary to the university. 

F. Suggested, the testing of the pupil's ability 

by various types of activity. 

6. Richard Mulcaster (153 1-161 1 ). Kemp, 2©o ; 

Williams, 107-113; Monree, 465-467; 
*230 ; Quick, 90-102 ; Mulcaster, Posi- 
tions (edited by R. H. Quick); Mul- 
caster, Elementarie (in Quick's edition 



MODERN EDUCATION 55 

of the Positions ; see also Watson, 
Richard Mulcaster and his Elemen- 
tarie). 

A. Educational works : Positions ; Elemen- 

tarie. 

B. Practical experience as head master of Mer- 

chant Taylors' and St. Paul's Grammar 
schools. 

C. Educational theories. 

a. Vernacular should be taught before the 
classics. 

b. Teacher should study the child. 

c. Emphasis upon education according to 
nature : " The end of education and of 
training is to help nature to her perfection" 

d. Elementary education especially im- 
portant. 

e. School education preferable to tutorial 
instruction. 

f. Both sexes should be educated in both 
vernacular and the classics. 

g. Teachers should have special training 
for their profession. 

h. Cenferences should be held between 
parents and parents, and between teach- 
ers and parents. 
7. Wolfgang Ratke (Ratich ; Ratichius) (1571— 
1635). Kemp, 200-206 ; Painter, 213- 
219 (old edition, 194-200) ; Williams, 
154-162; Seeley, 209-211; Monroe, 
478-480 ; * 237-238 ; Compayre, 121- 
122; Browning, 5 1-56 ; Quick, 103-1 18. 



56 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

A. Educational works: Address to Princes; 

Methodic Nova. 

B. Aim : first, to save time by teaching the 

classics with the vernacular as the medium 
of instruction ; second, to render the Ger- 
man language uniform, thus bringing 
uniformity into religion and govern- 
ment ; third, to teach arts and sciences 
through the German. 

C. Educational experiment at Kothen and its 

failure. 

D. Chief principles. 

a. Follow the order of nature in presenting 
the lessons. 

b. Teach one thing at a time. 

c. Assure the results by repetition (drill). 

d. Use the vernacular in both earlier and 
later instruction. 

e. Avoid constraint in study. 

f. Avoid rote-learning (verbal memory). 

g. Things rather than words, i.e. language 
by objects. 

h. Individual experience rather than -au- 
thority. 

II. The "Formal Discipline" Movement (17th and 
1 8th centuries). 

1. Formal discipline denned: Formal discipline 

is the study of languages, facts, and tilings 
with a view to "forming " or disciplining 
the mind and body. 

2. John Locke (1632-1704). Kemp, 218-221; 



MODERN EDUCATION 



57 



Painter, 230-238 (old edition, 213-223); 
*278-29<D ; Williams, 202-219; Seeley, 
220-223 5 Davidson, 197-208 ; Monroe, 
512-523 ; *26i-266 ; Compayre, 194- 
210; Browning, 102-118; Quick, 219- 
238; Munroe, 101-121 ; Locke, Some 
Thoughts concerning Education (edited 
by R. H. Quick ; Pitt Press Series ; Cam- 
bridge University Press) ; Conduct of 
the Understanding ; Essay concerning 
Human Understanding. 

A. Works on education. 

a. Some Thoughts concerning Education. 

b. Conduct of the Understanding. 

c. Essay concerning Human Understanding. 

B. Aim : to train the " gentleman " in manners 

and morals. 

C. Method : tutorial education by example 

and gentle measures. 

D. The " blank tablet" {tabula rasa) theory of 

mind : education can shape the pupil as 
it pleases. 

E. Training in habits extremely important. 

F. Plan for working-schools for the poor 

children. 

G. Prominence of the " formal discipline " con- 

cept in modern education. 

III. The Naturalistic Movement ( 1 6th to 18th centuries). 

1. Naturalism defined : Naturalism attempts to 

determine the concept "Nature" and to 

make nature's processes a guide in the 



58 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

method or a determinant of the co7itent 
of education, or both. 

2. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam)(i 561-1626). 

Kemp, 1,98-200; Painter, 200-207 (old 
edition, 179-187); Seeley, 205-209; 
Monroe, 468-478 ; *230-237; Compayre, 
123-124; Munroe, 36-67; Bacon, No- 
vum Organum ; Advancement of Learn- 
ing (Bohn Library). 

A. Bacon was not a professional educational 

reformer, but he exerted a great influence 
upon educational theory by popularizing 
induction as a method of research and 
by exalting the study of nature. 

B. Chief writings from the standpoint of 

educational history. 

a. Novum Organum. 

b. Advancement of Learning. 

C. Sketch of an encyclopedia of human knowl- 

edge to be called Instauratio Magna. 

D. Influence : first, applied induction to na- 

ture ; second, suggested a scientific con- 
tent of culture. 

3. John Amos Comenius (1 592-1671). Kemp, 

206-216; Painter, 219-230 (old edition, 
200-212); *255-277; Williams, 163- 
186; Seeley, 21 1-2 17; Davidson, 193- 
196 ; Monroe, 480-496 ; *238-248 ; Com- 
payre, 122-136; Browning, 56-68; 
Quick, 119-171; Munroe, 68-94 ; Mon- 
roe, W. S., 1-180; Laurie, 9-260; C©- 
menius, The Great Didactic (edited by 



MODERN EDUCATION 



59 



Keatinge) ; The Orbis Pictus (Bardeen's 
reprint of Hoole's English translation); 
The School of Infancy i^N . S. Monroe). 

A. Educational works. 

a. On method. 

a. The Great Didactic {Didactica 
Magna). 
/3. The School of Infancy. 

b. Text-books. 

a. Orbis Sensualium Pictns { The World 
of Sense-objects Illustrated). 

/3. Janua Linguanim Reserata {The 
Gate of Tongues Unlocked). 

7. Vestibidnm {Entrance-hall). 

8. Atrium {Interior-court). 

B. Aim : education to help man to attain 

happiness in God. 

C. Method : discover and imitate the proce- 

dure of nature. 

D. School organization. 

a. Mother-schoel (school of infancy) 
(birth to 6). 

b. Vernacular school (mother-tongue 
schools) (6-12). 

c. Latin-school (gymnasium) (12-18). 

d. U n iver sity ( 1 8-24). 

E. Curriculum : The Pansophic Scheme. 

a. This idea was derived from Bacon's 
encyclopedism, which was sketched in 
the Instauratio Magna. 

b. Comenius had the idea of a complete 
group of institutions of learning where 



60 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

all branches of human knowledge were 
represented by the faculty and text- 
books, and where the pupil could be 
brought into contact with the main out- 
lines of all knowledge, though it was not 
expected that he would master all the 
details of each branch. 
c. The scheme was visionary, and never 
met with practical success. 
F. Contributions to educational theory. 

a. Advocated universal, compulsory educa- 
tion for both sexes. 

b. All knowledge to be acquired in associ- 
ation with sense activity. 

c. Outlined a feasible plan of school or- 
ganization. 

d. Anticipated the need of the kindergarten 
and the modern elementary school. 

4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Kemp, 
255-264; Painter, 265-274 (old edition, 
249-255); *32i-339; Williams, 290-309 ; 
Seeley, 241-249; Davidson, 211-219; 
Monroe, 547-575; *28o-296; Compayre, 
278-310; Browning, 134-150; Quick, 
239-272; Munroe, 153-178; Davidson, 
*i-246; Rousseau, Emile> or Education 
(Payne's translation: The International 
Education Series ; or Worthington's 
translation of Steeg's edition of extracts : 
Heath's Pedagogical Library). 
A. Rousseau as an apostle of the " Enlighten- 
ment " movement. 



MODERN EDUCATION 6l 

B. His vagabond life, sentimentalism and insin- 

cerity. 

C. Works. 

a. Autobiographical: Confessions. 

b. Social. 

a. Origin of Inequality. 
/3. Social Contract. 

c. Educational. 

a. Entile, on V Education. • 
j3. Nouvelle Heloise. 

D. Influenced especially by Montaigne and 

Locke. 

E. Aim : " Let him {the pupil) first be a man" 

" To live is the business I wish to teach 
him" (quoted from the Emile). 

F. Most important principles. 

a. Follow nature : let nature be the teacher ; 
let nature furnish the subjects of study. 

b. Education should be an unbroken de- 
velopment. 

c. " Become good by doing good." 

G. Education of woman (Sophie) : to fit her to 

be man's helpmeet. 
H. Rousseau is the high priest of modern ele- 
mentary education (" new " education). 
5. Johann Bernard Basedow (1723-1790). 
Kemp, 265-269 ; Painter, 274-279 (old 
edition, 256-261); Williams, 318-329; 
Seeley, 250-256; Monroe, 577-5^3; 
*297-300 ; Quick, 273-289. 
A. Attempted a practical experiment with 
Rousseau's theories. 



€2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

B. Educational works. 

a. Methodical Instruction, both in Natural 
and Biblical Religion. 

b. An Address to the Friends of Humanity 
and to Persons in Power, on Schools, on 
Education, and its Influence on Public 
Happiness. 

■ c. Elementarwerk (Elementary Work) : an 
1 8th century Orbis P ictus for children, 
combining the ideas of Bacon, Comenius, 
and Rousseau. 

C. Education of his infant daughter according 

to Rousseau's ideas. 

D. The P hilanthropinum and its failure. 

IV. The Rationalistic Movement (18th and 19th cen- 
turies). 

1. Rationalism defined : Rationalism conceives of 

education as the process of developing man 
as a part of nature, through the agency of 
his natural environment, into a being con- 
trolled by a will which is motived by ra- 
tional ideals. 

2. Immanuel Kant (1 724-1 804). Painter, 

289-295; *340-35o; Williams, 309-317; 
Davidson, 220-223; Monroe, 595-596; 
Compayre, 332-338; Browning, 165-173; 
Churton, Kant on Education (Heath's 
Pedagogical Library.) 
A. Education includes : 

a. Nurture. 

b. Discipline. 



MODERN EDUCATION 63 

c. Instruction. 

d. Moral training. 

B. Aim. 

a. Development. 

b. Self-realization (perfectionism). 

C. Moral culture consists in action according 

to maxims. 
a. True morality consists in action under 
internal motives (duty) rather than ex- 
ternal stimuli. 
3. Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-18 14). 

A. Relation to Kant. 

B. Educational activity. 

a. Long career as a teacher of philosophy. 

C. Chief writings. 

a. Philosophical: Science of Knowledge 

( Wis sense hafts lehre) . <_..- 

b. Popular : Address to the German Nation ; 
Vocation of the Scholar. 

D. The strong ethical tendency of his system : 

The mind creates its own moral world in 
a series of will-acts. 

V. The Psychological Movement (18th and 19th 
centuries). 

1. The psychological movement defined: The 

psychological movement finds in an ex- 
amination of the unhampered mental 
processes of the child a key to method of 
teaching. 

2. John Henry Pestalozzi (1746-1827). Kemp, 

282-291 ; Painter, 295-306 (old edition, 



64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

266-278); *35 1-368; Williams, 330-3495 
Seeley, 257-271; Davidson, 229-232; 
Monroe, 597-622; *307~3i9; Compayre, 
417-445; Browning, 1 51-165; Quick, 
290-383; Munroe, 179-195 ; DeGuimps, 
1-432 ; Pinloche, ix-302 ; Pestalozzi, 
Leonard and Gertrude (abridged by Eva 
Channing: Heath's Pedagogical Li- 
brary) ; How Gertrude teaches her Chil- 
dren (Bardeen's Standard Teachers' 
Library) . 

A. Pestalozzi gathered up the currents of 

realism and naturalism in the earlier 
reformers and struggled to give them 
psychological justification. 

B. Most important writings. 

a. Leonard and Gertrude. 

b. How Gertrude teaches her Children. 

c. Evening Hour of a Hermit. 

C. Pestalozzi's experiments in social reform. 

a. Neuhof, the agricultural experiment 
(1771-1780). 

b. The Stanz Orphanage (1798-1799). 

D. Pestalozzi's experiments in educational 

reform. 

a. The Burgdorf school (1799- 1804). 

b. The Yverdon Institute (1805- 1825). 

E. Aim : to regenerate the poorer classes 

through elementary education and intel- 
ligent labor. 

F. Most important educational principles. 

a. Base teaching upon the natural order of 



MODERN EDUCATION 65 

the unfolding of the child's physical and 
mental powers. 

b. Self -development is the result which the 
teacher should secure. This begins with 
sensations ; these develop into percepts ; 
the percepts are organized into concepts. 
Hence early education must rely largely 
upon objects, sense symbols, and other 
objective aids. 

c. The child's power of receiving impres- 
sions must be appealed to first, then his 
power of elaborating these impressions 
into concepts. 

d. In learning the child's mind naturally 
moves on in the following order. 

a. From near to remote. 

/3. From concrete to abstract. 

7. From particular to general. 

8. From known to unknown. 

e. The principal means of education are 
number, form, and language. 

G. Though disclaiming indebtedness to the 
earlier reformers so far as acquaintance 
with their writings is concerned, yet 
Pestalozzi absorbed much from them in 
an indirect way. Both Locke, whose 
conception of the mind he follows, and 
Comenius influenced him somewhat. 
But especially did he follow the concep- 
tion of naturalism held by Rousseau. 
3. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1 776-1841). 
Kemp, 298-301; Painter, 315-322; 



66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Seeley, 278-283 ; Davidson, 232-235 ; 
Monroe, 622-639 ; * 319-329 ; Browning, 
174-180; De Garmo, 3-98; Herbart, 
Pestalozzi's Idea of an A B C of Sense- 
perception (translated by Eckoff : Inter- 
national Education Series); The Science 
of Ediccation and The ^Esthetic Revela- 
tion of the World (translated by H. M. 
and E. Felkin); Outlines of Edtccational 
Doctrine (translated by Lange and De 
Garmo). 

A. Herbart may be regarded as the father 

of scientific pedagogics, developed upon 
a psychological basis. 

B. Herbart's educational career. 

a. As private tutor. 

b. Connection with Pestalozzi. 

c. As professor of philosophy. 

d. As conductor of a practice school or 
pedagogical seminary. 

C. Most important pedagogical writings. 

a. Pestalozzi' s Idea of an A B C of Sense- 
perception. 

b. The ^Esthetic Revelation of the World 
as the Chief Function of Education. 

c. Science of Education. 

d. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. 

D. Chief points in his educational doctrine. 

a. Pedagogy as a science to be founded 
upon an exact psychology. 

b. From the standpoint of education the 
mind's most important function is its 



MODERN EDUCATION 67 

power to assimilate new experience to 
old, — to which is given the name of 
apperception. 

c. Herbart's metaphysics of mind — an 
heritage from Locke's empiricism — is as 
follows: mind is in the beginning a 
simple and unitary entity which has 
merely the power of receiving impres- 
sions (presentations) through the senses ; 
these impressions elaborate into ideas 
(experiences); out of the interaction of 
these mental contents the whole life of 
mind arises. This is a doctrine of a 
mechanics of ideas. 

d. The elaboration of the ideas as well as 
the presentations may be controlled by 
an external agency, i.e. the teacher. 

e. " Presentations " come to the mind in two 
forms : first, experiences with nature, 
elaborated into knowledge \ and second, 
experiences with one's fellows ("social 
intercourse "), elaborated into permanent 
forms of sympathy. 

f. The aim of education is ethical. The 
basis of experience necessary to realize 
this aim is acquired partly through 
the home relationships, but mainly 
through school instruction. A harmoni- 
ous organization of experience is pro- 
ductive of a state of moral approval 
resembling taste in matters of art or the 
perception of harmony in music. 



68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

g. Since ideas are organized out of experi- 
ences or presentations, the pleasure or 
moral approval to which they give rise 
becomes a motive to (ethical) action. 

h. "Educative instruction" is possible 
through the fact that any new presenta- 
tion or experience is modified by its 
apperceptive mass of ideas (" circle of 
thought "), and that these ideas as thus 
organized determine conduct. 

i. Proper apperception is possible only on 
the supposition that an interest is estab- 
lished in the pupil's mind. This in- 
terest must reach out in many directions, 
so that it may aid in the apperceiving of 
manifold presentations or experiences ; 
it must be, to use Herbart's phrase, 
manysided interest. 

j. Method of instruction involves certain 
steps or stages, known as the formal 
steps, viz. clearness (sensing an individ- 
ual presentation), association (the com- 
bining of the new presentation with the 
apperceptive basis), system (the organi- 
zation of the general notion as part of 
the mind's permanent fund of knowl- 
edge), and method (the application of 
the general notion). 

k. Educative instruction is to take place 
through an organized curriculum, involv- 
ing both a " co?icentration " of teaching 
about certain subjects of the course, 



MODERN EDUCATION 69 

and the "correlation" of the different 
branches one with another. 

E. Herbart was Chiefly influenced by Locke 

in his psychology, by Kant in his under- 
lying philosophical principles, and by 
Pestalozzi in his pedagogy. 

F. Herbart's influence has been strongest in 

Germany and (within the last fifteen 
years) in the United States. His most 
influential doctrines are manysided in- 
terest, the formal steps, and correla- 
tion. 
4. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1 782-1852). 
Kemp, 291-298; Painter, 306-315 (old 
edition, 278-288); ^369-382; Williams, 
396-405 ; Seeley, 272-277 ; Davidson, 
235-239; Monroe, 639-667; *329~342; 
Compayre, 447-465; Quick, 384-413; 
Munroe, 195-206; Bowen, 1-196 ; Froe- 
bel, Education of Man (Hailmann's trans- 
lation : International Education Series); 
Pedagogics of the Kindergarten ; Educa- 
tion by Development ; Autobiography 
(translated by Michaelis and Moore: 
Bardeen) ; The Songs and Music of Five - 
beVs Mother Play (arranged by Susan E. 
Blow). 

A. Froebel's life and educational career. 

B. Writings. 

a. Education of Man. 

b. Education by Development. 

c. Pedagogics of the Kindergarten. 



yo HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

d. Mother and Nursery Songs {Mutter- und 
Koselieder). 

C. Connection with Pestalozzi at Yverdon. 

D. Educational philosophy : " Education 

should lead and guide man to clearness 
concerning himself and in himself, to peace 
with nature, aiid to unity with God." 
(Froebel, Education of Man.} 

a. This conception implies four things : 
first, self -development ; second, estab- 
lishment of social relations on an ethical 
basis ; third^ harmonious intercourse with 
nature ; fourth, an understanding of God 
as the unity back of man and the world. 

b. . This end can be realized only by a sys- 
tem of education which gives free play 
to self activity. 

a. Self-activity defined : " Self activity 
is activity determined by one's own mo- 
tives, arising out of one's own interests, 
and sustained by one's own power. . . . 
Such activity is in a way compelled, since 
it is in response to the inherent nature of 
being and of the individual ; but as the 
individual responds only in obedience to 
the force felt within his own nature, and 
not to one from without, such activity is 
free — it is self activity." (Monroe, A 
Brief Course in the History of Education, 

P- 3370 

E. Origin of the Kindergarten: to connect the 

home and the school. 



MODERN EDUCATION 71 

a. Its precursor was Comenius' Mother 
School. 

F. Froebel's principles are most definitely 

connected with the ideas enunciated 
by Comenius, Rousseau, and Pesta- 
lozzi. 

G. The Kindergarten idea is so much a part 

of the educational spirit of the age that 
it is difficult to estimate it. Suffice it to 
say that its methods and spirit seem des- 
tined to extend far beyond what is 
technically kindergarten instruction. 

VI. The Utilitarian Movement (19th century). 

1. The utilitarian movement defined: The utili- 

tarian movement asserts that nature, in- 
cluding both the child's mind and the 
environment out of which it has evolved 
and to which it responds, makes the " use- 
ful" the criterion of education. 

2. Herbert Spencer ( 1 820-1903). Painter, 335- 

345; *399~4i8; Williams, 373-384; 
Monroe, 684-689; *354~358; Com- 
payre, 53^-556; Quick, 439-469; Spen- 
cer, Education, Intellectual, Moral, and 
Physical. 

A. Educational work : Education, Intellectual, 

Moral, and Physical. 

B. Aim : " To prepare us for complete living." 

(Spencer, Education.) 

C. The question of educational values (content 

of the curriculum). 



72 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

a. The criterion of the worth of knowledge 
is utility. 

b. The five grades of knowledge according 
to the standard of utility. 

a. Knowledge for direct self-preser- 
vation. 

/3. Knowledge for indirect self-preserva- 
tion {making a living). 

7. Knowledge relative to the perpetua- 
tion of the species {rearing of offspring). 

8. Knowledge for citizenship. 
e. Ornamental knowledge. 

c. Supreme value of science for all these 
purposes. 

D. Intellectual education. 

a. Principles underlying correct method. 
a. Simple to complex. 
j3. Concrete to abstract. 
7. Empirical to rational, 
h. Epitomize race-evolution. 

e. Foster self-development. 

f. Promote happiness. 

E. Discipline. 

a. Natural (by consequences) to displace 
artificial punishment. 

b. Self-government to displace government 
by external authority. 

F. Physical education. 

a. Aim: the "robust animal." 

b. The maintenance of physical vigor 
should be viewed as a duty. 

G. Spencer was considerably influenced in his 



MODERN EDUCATION 73 

conception of method by Pestalozzi. His 
utilitarianism reflects the spirit of Eng- 
lish empiricism from Locke onward. 
H. Spencer has been influential in placing 
science in the curriculum — especially 
throughout the English-speaking world. 
The great development of science within 
the last half-century has proved favor- 
able to his reputation. He has also done 
much to popularize the utilitarian stand- 
ard in education. Here again he has 
been assisted by modern commercialism. 
He has likewise been influential in sug- 
gesting the sociological conception of edu- 
cation, which is just now so prominent. 



Third : Contemporary Educational Theory 

Recent educational thought is eclectic ; that is, it pays 
due regard to the lessons of past experience as repre- 
sented in both theory and practice, while at the same 
time responding to the suggestions that come from recent 
scientific theory. This eclecticism makes classification 
of tendencies difficult, for to a certain degree it produces 
blending of outlines rather than cameo-like distinctness. 
However, certain dominant conceptions manifest them- 
selves clearly enough for classification. 

I. The Sociological Conception. 

1. Meaning of this conception : Education is the 
means of preparing the child through the 
agencies furnished by the miniature social 



74 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

world of the school for the larger social life 
of the community. 

2. Literature presenting this conception : Monroe, 

706-746 ; * 369-398 ; Dewey, The School 
and Society ; Dutton, Social Phases of 
Education ; Henderson, Education and 
the Larger Life ; Dutton and Snedden, 
Administration of Public Education in 
the United States, Chs. iv, xxxi, and 
xxxii; Vincent, The Social Mind and 
Education ; Ward, Dynamic Sociology, 
Vol. II, Chs. x-xiv ; Home, The Phi- 
losophy of Education, Chs. iv and v ; 
Hall, Some Social Aspects of Education, 
Educ. Rev., 23 : 433; Sadler, The School 
in Some of its Relations to Social Or- 
ganization and to National Life, Educ. 
Rev., 29: 338; Paulding, The Public 
School as a Center of Community Life, 
Educ, Rev., 15: 147; Dewey, Are the 
Schools doing what the People want them 
to Do f Educ. Rev., 21 : 459; Hyde, The 
Social Mission of the Public School, 
Educ. Rev., 22 : 222. 

3. Auguste Comte, the founder of the science of 

Sociology. 

4. Lester F. Ward's conception of the social func- 

tion of education (cf . quotation from So- 
cial Dynamics in Monroe, supra). 

5. Professor John Dewey's conception of the pur- 

pose of education as denned in social 
terms : " The process of remaking experi- 



MODERN EDUCATION 75 

ence, giving it a more socialized value 
through individual experience, by giving 
the individtial better control over his own 
powers." 
6. Sociological ideas of Pestalozzi and Froebel. 

II. The Evolutionary Conception. 

1. Meaning of this conception : Education is con- 

scious evolution; that is, it is the attempt 
to control the process of developmental 
change in human society through an insight 
into past processes, a foresight of ends, and 
an adaptation of means. 

2. Literature presenting this conception : O'Shea, 

Ediication as Adjustment ; Bagley, The 
Educative Process ; Home, The Philoso- 
phy of Education, Ch. ii (aside from these 
more systematic statements of the rela- 
tion between biological and social evolu- 
tion and education are the host of indirect 
contributions to educational theory, es- 
pecially from the field of psychology, 
that are decidedly colored by evolution- 
ary concepts). 

3. Principles flowing from this conception. 

A . Civilized man is the highest but not the final 

product of evohctionary progress. 

B. Civilized man is the result of psychological 

rather than physiological evolution. 

C. Civilized man has in a measure substituted 

conscious for mechanical evolutionary pro- 
cesses. 



y6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

D. Civilized man thus substitutes for the uncon- 

scious "adaptation" of lower life-forms 
conscious processes of " adjustment." 

E. Civilized man adapts sub-human means to 

his needs in inve7itive activities, thus pro- 
ducing an artificial evolution of brute 
forces, inorganic and organic ; and also 
adjusts to physical and social environ- 
ment. 

F. The period of most advantageous adjustment 

is the period of plasticity — the educative 
period or youth. 

G. But since youth is also the period of inex- 

perience, maturity, that of acquired and 
classified experience {science), the adjust- 
ments of youth 7nust be made in accordance 
with the experience of maturity ; hence 
the need of teaching and education. 

H. Through the process of evolution all per- 
manent needs become institutionalized ; 
hence the school, which is the most de- 
veloped instrument of conscious evolution. 
4. Close connection between the sociological and 
the evolutionary conceptions. 

A. As man increases his mastery over nature 
by invention and discovery, evolution for 
him will tend to become more and more 
a process in social adjustment. 
a. It follows as a corollary that the specific 
adjusting agency, the school, must antici- 
pate and fulfill social ends. 



MODERN EDUCATION yy * 



Fourth : School Organization 

I. Humanistic Schools. Monroe, 385-397, 416-439; 
* 1 80-1 87, 198-214; Kemp, 1 71-179; 
Painter, 164-165, 167-168, 169-170, 
174-194 (old edition, 147, 152, 154-173); 
Williams, 26-48,94-106, 113-117; See- 
ley, 175-188; Compayre, 1 12-120. 

1. Introduction of humanistic studies into the 

Italian, French, German, and English 
universities. 
A. Wittenberg (founded in 1502) was human- 
istic from the beginning. 

2. Special schools for the nobility. 

A. Such schools in Italy. 

B. The Fiirstenschulen (Ritterakademieeri) 

(Schools for Nobles) in Germany. 

3. Classical secondary schools. 

A. The German gymnasium. 

a. The typical German classical school, 
founded by Sturm, and still an important 
factor in German education. 

B. The English classical ("public") schools. 

a. During the 16th century the following 
famous English secondary schools were 
founded: St. Paul's (15 12); Shrewsbury 
(1551); Westminster (1560); Merchant 
Taylors' (1561); Rugby (1567); Harrow 
( 1 5 7 1 ) ; Charterhouse ( 1 609). 

b. All these schools were founded under hu- 
manistic control and have conserved the 
" humanities " even to the present day. 



yS HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

C. Secondary ("inferior") and collegiate 
(" superior ") institutes of the Jesuits. 
4. The Protestant Reformation and elementary- 
education. 
A. Luther's advocacy of a state system for 
the people. 
a. Melanchthon's work as an organizer. 

II. Realistic Schools. Monroe, 430-437, 496-502, 
523-529; *2o6-2i4, 248-253, 266-270; 
Painter, 238-244, 257-263 (old edition, 
224-227, 240-247); Williams, 186-190, 
258-280; Seeley, 227-236; Compayre, 
153-163, 258-277. 
I. Elementary education. 

A. The " Little Schools " of Port Royal (the 
Jansenists). 

a. While the methods were strict in con- 
formity with their belief in the child's 
native sinfulness, the subjects taught 
were of the realistic type. 

B. The Brethren of the Christian Schools. 

a. Provided elementary education for the 
poor. 

b. Pupils carefully graded by classes. 

c. Established training- and practice-schools 
to prepare teachers. 

C. Several of the German states followed the 
lead of Saxony and developed a complete 
system of schools, from elementary 
schools to gymnasien and universities, 
providing for compulsory attendance of 









MODERN EDUCATION 79 

both boys and girls in the elementary 
schools. 
2. Secondary schools. 

A. In Germany. 

a. The gymnasien continued to represent 
the humanistic tendencies, though with 
some little realistic modifications as to 
method. 

b. The founding of the Real Schools (Real- 
schnlen). 

a. Hecker founded the first Real School 
at Berlin in 1747, its curriculum including 
French, German, Latin, writing, drawing, 
architecture, arithmetic, geometry, mechan- 
ics, history, geography, ethics, and religion. 

c. Francke's (1 663-1 727) Institute at 
Halle (founded 1694). 

a. His purpose was philanthropic. 
£. Aim : practical preparation for life 
and religious influence. 

B. In England. 

a. " Academies " founded by the non-con- 
forming churches, following the sug- 
gestion made in Milton's Tractate on 
Education. 

a. The following subjects were repre- 
sented in the curricula of these institu- 
tions : French, Italian, Hebrew, rhetoric, 
English, logic, ethics, metaphysics, theology, 
anatomy, geography, algebra, geometry, 
history, economics, oratory, surveying, trigo- 
nometry, conic sections, shorthand. 



80 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

3. The universities. 

A. At most of the higher institutions human- 

istic learning in support of theology was 
too firmly intrenched to make place for 
I realism. 

B. The University of Halle was founded in 

1694 as a seat of realistic instruction ; 
hence it is in a sense the first modern 
university. 
a. It stood for Lehr- and Lernfreiheit 
(freedom of learning and teaching). 

C. In 1737 the University of Gottingen was 

founded under realistic auspices. 

D. English universities were slow to respond 

to change. 

III. Naturalistic Schools. Monroe, 474, 478-479, 486- 
487, 492-494, 577-583, 621-622, 625, 
659-673, 692-702, 722-727 ; *234, 237- 
238, 240, 245-246, 296-300, 318-319, 
320, 338-348, 360-368, 381-385 ; Kemp, 
203-206, 210-21 1, 214, 249-250, 265- 
272, 279-281, 294-296, 299; Painter, 
215, 217, 222, 225, 227-228, 274, 276- 
277, 278, 296, 31 1-3 1 2 (old edition, 196, 
198, 204, 2ii, 258-259, 260, 283-284); 
Williams, 156-157, 166, 170-175, 321- 
323,400-402; Seeley, 210, 215-216, 251- 
254,275-277,280-281; Compayre, 127- 
132, 343-412, 456-464, 514-527. 
1. In his New Atlantis Bacon suggests a research 
institution, named Solomon s House. 



MODERN EDUCATION 8 1 

2. Ratke's institution at Kbthen. 

3. Comenius's four grades of schools. 

A. The infant school. 

B. The vernacular school. 

C. The Latin school. 
D. The university. 

4. Basedow's Philanthropinam. 

5. Lancaster's and Bell's Monitorial Schools. 

6. Froebel's Kindergarten. 

7. Herbart's Pedagogical Seminar, and Practice 

School. 

Fifth : National School Systems 

I. Germany. Reports of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Education, 1901, Vol. I, 1 ff., 
1906, Vol. I, 35-72 (contains the Prussian 
School Law of 1906), 1907, Vol. I, 169 ff., 
1908, Vol. I,247ff.; Lexis, A General View 
of the History and Organization of Public 
Education in the German Empire (Berlin, 
1904); Lexis, W. (editor), Das Unter- 
richtswesen im Deutschen Reich, 4 vols. 
(Berlin, 1904); Monroe, 729-731; *386- 
388 ; Seeley, 289-295 ; Painter, 356-362 
(old edition, 291-296); Kemp, 302-303, 
323-324, 325-326, 344-345- 
1. Administration: each state of the German 
Empire has its own administrative sys- 
tem, all such systems having the general 
aim to secure reasonable uniformity with 
sufficient elasticity to meet local condi- 



82 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

tions. The Prussian system as organized 
under the Law of 1906 is given as a type. 

A. The Royal Minister of Education. 

B. The Ministerial Councilors. 

C. Local administration. 

a. City school boards. 

b. Rural school boards. 

2. Supervision : the teachers are not so closely 

supervised as in the United States, 
mainly because on the average they are 
much better trained. 

A. City inspectors. 

B. County inspectors. 

3. Schools. 

A. Kindergartens. 

B. The common school ( Volksschule, Mittel- 

schule, Vorschule). 
a. These schools are gradually becoming 
absolutely free. 

C. Continuation schools. 

a. General continuation schools. 

b. Industrial continuation schools. 

c. Trade schools. 

d. Commercial schools. 

e. Agricultural schools. 

D. Secondary and collegiate schools. 

a. The higher classical school (Gymna- 
stum). 

b. The Latin-scientific higher school (Real- 
gymnasium). 

c. The non-classical higher school (Real- 
schule, Oberrealschule). 



MODERN EDUCATION 83 

d. The advanced girls' school (Hohere 
Madchenschule, girls' gymnasien). 

E. Normal schools. 

F. Universities. 

4. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 for every 

school day. 

5. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of 

the teacher. 

II. France. Monroe, 731-733; *388-389; Seeley, 
296-303 ; Painter, 363-37° ( old edition, 
296-302); Kemp, 304-305, 325, 343-344- 
1. Administration. 

A. The Minister of Public Instruction and 

Fine Arts. 

B. Departments of education. 

a. Primary. 

b. Secondary. 

c. Higher. 

C. Advisory boards. 

a. General. 

b. Departmental, one for each of the 
above-mentioned departments. 

D. Administrative divisions of the French 

Republic. 

a. The seventeen Academies. 

a. The academic councils (school 
boards). 

b. The ninety Departments. 

a. Their educational councils in charge 
of primary schools. 
0. Their school inspectors. 



84 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

7. Their normal schools. 

8. The Arrondissements. 

2. The schools. 

A. The maternal schools {Ecoles matemelles). 
a. Attendance from 2 to 6 years of age. 

B. The infant schools (Ecoles infantines). 
a. Attendance from 4 to 7 years of age. 

C. The primary schools. 

a. Lower (Ecoles primaires e'le'mentaires). 
a. Attendance from 6 to 13 years of 

age. 

b. Higher {Ecoles primaires superieures). 
a. Elementary review course of indefi- 
nite length. 

/3. High school course of five years. 

D. Normal schools. 

E. The fifteen state universities. 

3. Education is compulsory from 6 to 13 for every 

school day. 

4. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of 

the teacher. 

III. England. Reports of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Education, 1902, Vol. I, 1001- 
1068 (gives text of the Act of 1902), 
1907, Vol. I, 74 ff., 1908, Vol. I, 175 ff. ; 
Balfour, Educational System of Great 
Britain and Ireland ; Monroe, 733-734 ; 
*389~39i; Painter, 37 J -377; Kemp, 
305-307, 324-325, 338-340, 343- 
I. Administration. 

A. Central: The Board of Education. 



MODERN EDUCATION 85 

a. Apportions government grants for edu- 
cation. 

b. Inspects the institutions sharing in these 
funds. 

c. Includes within its jurisdiction elemen- 
tary, secondary, and technical schools. 

B. Local : County Councils and Borough 
Councils. 

a. Receive and disburse their share of the 
government grants. 

b. Levy local taxes for the support of 
schools. 

c. Appoint an education committee to 
control purely scholastic affairs. 

a. A corps of " inspectors " form the 
official staff of advisers to this committee. 
2. Schools. 

A. Elementary education. 

a. Public (popularly called " board " 
schools). 

a. Infant schools (ages 3-7). 

ft. Ordinary elementary schools (ages 
above 7). 

7. Higher elementary schools (these 
overlap the ordinary ones, admitting pu- 
pils from the latter at ages 12 and over). 

b. Schools under denominational and pri- 
vate control (popularly referred to as 
" voluntary" schools); the former may 
participate in the government grants 
upon submitting to inspection and re- 
nouncing sectarian religious instruction. 



86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

B. Secondary education. 

a. Under public control. 

a. Scholarships supplied by the coun- 
cils. 

/3. Secondary and evening schools. 

7. Grants for equipment and mainte- 
nance of private secondary schools. 

b. The great " public " schools : Eton, 
Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, etc. 

C. Special education. 

a. Teachers' training colleges. 

b. Technical schools. 

D. Higher education. 

a. "University colleges." 

b. The great universities : Oxford, Cam- 
bridge. 

3. Education compulsory from 5 to 14. 

4. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of 

the teacher. 

IV. The United States. Monroe, 734-739; *39i-393 ; 
Seeley, 309-314; Painter, 391-394 (old 
edition, 320-325); Kemp, 310-31 1, 
314-315,319-321,327-332,334,337-338, 
345-348 ; Boone, Chs. vii, viii, ix, xi, xiii, 
xvii, xviii, xix; Dexter, Chs. xi, xii, xiii, 
xv, xviii, xx, xxi. 
1. Administration. 

A. There is no national administrative organi- 
zation vested with legal authority over 
education. The function of such a cen- 
tral controlling agency is in some degree 



MODERN EDUCATION 87 

discharged by the United States Bureau 
of Education, a bureau of the Department 
of the Interior. 

a. This bureau collects and issues statistics 
of education. 

b. It also issues annual reports containing 
in addition to the statistics valuable con- 
tributions on pertinent educational topics. 

B. State administration. 

a. The State Superintendent or Commis- 
sioner of Education. 

b. State Boards of Education. 

C. County administration. 

a. The County Superintendent of Schools. 

D. City administration. 

a. The Board of Education. 

b. The City Superintendent of Schools. 

2. Supervision. 

A. General supervision. 

B. Supervision of special branches. 

C. Local supervision. 

a. The principal. 

b. Heads of departments. 

3. The schools. 

A. The kindergarten. 

B. The elementary schools (eight grades). 

a. The primary grades (first to fourth 
grades). 

b. The intermediate grades (fifth and sixth 
grades). 

c. The grammar grades (seventh and 
eighth grades). 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

C. The secondary schools. 

a. Public high schools. 

a. Academic high schools. 

ft. Manual training high schools. 

7. Commercial high schools. 

b. Endowed college preparatory schools 
and academies. 

c. Private academies and seminaries. 

D. Institutions for the preparation of teachers. 

a. City training schools for teachers. 

b. State normal schools. 

c. Training colleges and pedagogical de- 
partments of universities. 

d. Private normal schools. 

e. Institutes and teachers' associations. 

E. Colleges and universities. 

a. Privately endowed colleges and univer- 
sities. 

b. Denominational colleges. 

c. State universities. 

F. Professional and technological education. 

a. Law schools. 

b. Medical schools. 

c. Theological seminaries. 

d. Institutes of technology. 

e. Trades schools. 

Compulsory education between 7 or 8 and 13 
or 14 is statutory in nearly all states. 

Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of 
the teacher. 



MODERN EDUCATION 89 

Sixth : Education in the United States 

I. The Colonial Period (1619-1783). Monroe, 395- 
397. 437, 500-501; *i86-i87, 211-212, 
251-252; Painter, 378-385 (old edi- 
tion, 306-314); Williams, 247-252, 361- 

365. 
1. Virginia and the Southern Colonies. Boone, 
12-14, 30-37, 58-60; Dexter, Chs. i, 
iv, 65-72, v, 73, xv, 234-237, xxi, 424- 
426. 

A. Early efforts of the Church of England in 

behalf of missionary schools (beginning 
1616). 

B. Land grant of fifteen thousand acres for 

an Episcopal college. 

C. Effect of the Indian massacre of 1622. 

D. The first legislation upon education in 

America passed by the General Assem- 
bly of Virginia in 1624. 

E. Schools founded by private bequest sprung 

up between 1634 and 1700. 

F. The College of William and Mary founded 

in 1693. 

G. Tardiness of the other Southern colonies in 

educational matters. 
2. The New England colonies. Boone, 14-19, 
20-30, 37-42, 44-53 5 Dexter, Chs. hi, 
v, 79-84> vi, 90-91, xv, 223-231, 237- 
244, 259-261, 265-267, xxi, 424-428. 
A. Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies. 
Martin, Lectures I and II. 



90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

a. The Boston Latin Grammar School 
(founded 1635). 

a. The school supported by subscrip- 
tions and land grants. 

/3. The attempt to make it a free 
school. 

7. The headmastership of Ezekiel 
Cheever. 

b. Schools established at Charlestown 
(1636) and Salem (1637). 

c. Dorchester established (1639) the first 
school in America supported by direct 
taxation " upon the inhabitants of the 
town." 

d. Founding of Harvard College in 1636. 
a. Purpose : to educate a Christian 

ministry. 
/3. The bequest of John Harvard. 

e. The Massachusetts Law of 1647. 

a. The most important single legislative 
act in American educational history, 
establishing the precedent for our public 
school system. 
/3. Its main provisions. 

1st, an elementary school for every 
fifty families. 

2d, a grammar school for every one 
hundred families. 

3d, such education may be supported 
by public tax. 
f. The tardiness of Plymouth Colony in 
establishing schools. 



MODERN EDUCATION 



91 



B. The Connecticut colonies. 

a. Rev. John Higginson opened the first 
school at Hartford in 1639. 

b. Schools in the New Haven Colony. 

a. Evidence points to a school as early 
as 1639. 

/3. The court enacted in 1641 that "our 
pastor, Mr. Davenport, together with the 
magistrates " establish a free school. 
Ezekiel Cheever was its teacher until 
1650. 

c. The Connecticut Code of 1650. 

a. Provisions for schools identical wi^h 
those of the Massachusetts Law of 1647, 
viz. an elementary school for every fifty, 
and a grammar school for every one 
hundred, families, with the option of 
supporting them by public tax. 

(3. A common English education for 
their charges made compulsory upon 
the parents or guardians of children. 

d. Founding of Yale College in 1701. 

a. Purpose : to educate a Christian 
ministry. 
/3. The bequest of Elihu Yale. 

C. Relative tardiness of the other New Eng- 

land colonies in educational matters. 
3. New York (New Netherlands) and the middle 
colonies. Boone, 9-12, 53-58, 70-77; 
Dexter, Chs. ii, iv, 57-67, v, 76-79, xv, 
245-268, xxi, 429-430 ; Palmer, Ch. i. 
A. The establishment of the first school in 



92 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the American colonies by the Dutch at 
New Amsterdam in 1633. 

a. Adam Roelandsen the first teacher. 

b. The first tax levy for school purposes 
was authorized in 1638. 

B. Later enactments affecting education. 

a. Peter Stuyvesant on becoming director- 
general (1647) urged the need of educa- 
tion. 

b. The establishment of a Latin school 
in 1659. 

C. After the surrender to the English (1664) 

education languished in New York, be- 
cause the governors were hostile toward 
the Dutch Reformed Church, under whose 
auspices the schools had been established 
and maintained. 

D. Revival of educational interests under the 

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel 
(organized 1704). 

E. Founding of a free Latin school in 1732. 
F Founding of King's College (now Colum- 
bia) in 1754. 

G. Pennsylvania had ample provision for edu- 
cation in Penn's Frame of Government 
(promulgated in 1682) and in legislation 
dating about the same time. 
a. Founding of the Friends' Public School 
in 1689 at Philadelphia. 
a. This later grew into the famous Penn 
Charter School, which is still a flourishing 
institution. 



MODERN EDUCATION 93 

b. Founding of a charitable academy at 
Franklin's suggestion (1749), which de- 
veloped into the University of Pennsyl- 
vania. 
H. New Jersey received the overflow from 
other colonies adjacent ; hence its schools 
originated from several sources. 

a. The earliest school was established by 
the Dutch at Bergen in 1619 or 1662. 

b. By 1669 the schools had fallen under the 
control of the English. 

c. Newark's first school was established in 
1676. 

d. School laws were enacted in 1693 and 
1695 by East Jersey authorizing the elec- 
tion of three men to have charge of 
schools. 

a. The collection of school tax could be 
enforced by the sale of property against 
which it was levied. 
e. Tennent's Log College (founded about 
1727) became the basis for the later es- 
tablishment of Princeton College in 
1746. 
f. Rutgers College (formerly Queen's Col- 
lege) was established by the Dutch Re- 
formed Church at New Brunswick, New 
Jersey, in 1766. 

II. The National Period (1783 to date). Monroe, 
668-669, 671, 673, 693-697, 699-700, 
701-702, 712-714, 723-729, 734-736, 



94 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

743-744 5*343-344, 346, 347-348, 361- 
363; 365-366, 367-368, 373-377, 382- 
386, 391-393, 396-397 ; Painter, 385-395 
(old edition, 314-325); Williams, 388-395, 
407-413, 414-416. 
I. Educational development during the first fifty 
years of national history was slow, owing 
mainly to the impoverishment of the coun- 
try and to the direction of the people's 
energies toward practical issues. Boone, 
61-78; Dexter, 77-79, 80-83, 84-86, 
90-94; Martin, 90-134; Palmer, Chs. 
ii-xi. 

A. Prejudice against free education because 

the schools were regarded as "pauper 
schools." 

B. School legislation. 

a. The Regents of the University of the 
state of New York incorporated at the 
suggestion of Governor George Clinton 

(1784). 

b. The creation of school funds by New 
York. 

c. New York created the office of State 
Superintendent in 1812. 

d. The Public School Society of the City of 
New York chartered in 1805. 

a. It was in control of the schools of 
New York City for forty-eight years. 

e. Retrogressive legislation legalizing the 
district system was passed in Massachu- 
setts in 1789. 



MODERN EDUCATION 95 

C. Rapid growth of the academy movement. 

D. Beginnings of education in the trans- Appa- 

lachian region. Dexter, Chs. viii, ix. 

a. Ohio incorporated the first academies in 
1802 and passed the first public school 
law (based on that of New York) in 1 82 1 . 

b. Indiana enacted its first school law in 
1824. 

c. Illinois incorporated three academies in 
18 19, and provided by law for free schools 
in 1825. 

d. Michigan enacted a school law similar 
to the Massachusetts Law of 1647 in 
1827. 

E. Establishment of school funds by state and 

national legislation. 

a. Connecticut (1795) established a school 
fund of $1,000,000 accruing from the 
sale of lands in the " Western Reserve." 

b. In 1786 New York set apart two lots in 
each township of unoccupied lands for 
school purposes and created a fund by 
the sale of a large amount of public lands 
in 1801. 

c. The "Ordinance of 1787," passed by 
Congress as a basis of organization of 
the Northwest Territory, provided that 
the central section of every township be 
reserved for the maintenance of public 
schools. 

d. In 1836 Congress distributed the sur- 
plus in the United States Treasury ($30,- 



96 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

000,000) among the several states, and 
most of them used the revenue therefrom 
for public schools. 
F. Early school movements. 

a. The monitorial system of Lancaster in- 
troduced in 1805. 

b. The infant school movement (begun 
about 1825). 

c. The Fellenberg movement (beginning 
about 1825). 

2. The educational revival under the leadership 
of Horace Mann (1 796-1 859) and Henry 
Barnard (181 1-1 900). Boone, 103-106; 
Dexter, Ch. viii ; Martin, Lee. iv ; 
Hinsdale, Chs. iii-vii. 

A. The Massachusetts State Board of Educa- 

tion (organized 1837). 
a. Horace Mann as its secretary (from 
1837 to 1849). 

a. His campaign against the " district 
system " of common school control. 

/3. His plea for an adequate public 
fund. 

7. His plea for normal schools and 
better prepared teachers. 

8. His campaign for better and more 
sanitary schoolhouses. 

e. His visit to European schools and 
advocacy of more advanced methods. 

f. His Reports. 

B. The Connecticut State Board of Commis- 

sioners (organized 1838). 



MODERN EDUCATION 97 

a. Henry Barnard as its secretary. 

a. His reports showed the need of 
organization and supervision. 

(3. He established teachers' meetings 
and institutes. 

7. He founded and edited the Ameri- 
can Journal of Education. 

3. Organization of state systems of education. 

A. In the Middle and Far West. Dexter 

Chs. viii, x. 

a. Elementary education. 

b. The development of public high schools. 

c. State universities. 

a. The Morrill Act (1862) apportioned 
to each state thirty thousand acres (or 
scrip to that amount) per representative 
and senator in Congress, subject to sale 
at $1.25 per acre, the proceeds to be used 
to found higher institutions in which were 
represented a technical and agricultural 
curriculum. 

/3. The following state universities origi- 
nated in this act : California, Illinois, 
Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, 
Ohio, West Virginia, Wyoming. 

B. In the Southern states. Dexter, Ch. ix ; 

Boone, Ch. xx. 

4. The United States Bureau of Education (es- 

tablished in 1867). Dexter, 202; Boone, 
308-311. 
A. Henry Barnard was the first United States 
Commissioner of Education. 



98 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

5. Training of teachers. Boone, Chs. viii, ix; 

Dexter, Ch. xviii ; Luckey. 

A. Teachers' institutes. 

B. Teachers' reading circles. 

C. Normal schools. 

a. The pioneer work of Rev. James G. 
Carter. 

b. The work of Horace Mann in promot- 
ing normal schools. 

c. The establishment of the State Normal 
College at Albany, New York (1844). 

a. Its success under the presidency of 
David P. Page. 

d. The New Britain, Connecticut," State 
Normal School was established in 1849 
with Henry Barnard as' principal.* 

e. The Oswego, New York, State Normal 
School (1861), under the principalship of 
Edward Sheldon, was a pioneer in intro- 
ducing Pestalozzian methods into the 
United States. *«%!>**. 

D. City training school for teachers. 

E. Pedagogical departments in colleges and 

universities. 

F. Colleges of education. 

G. Teachers' associations. 

a. City teachers' association^ 

b. State teachers' associations. 

c. The National Educational Association. 

6. Education of women in the United States. 

Boone, 68-70, Ch. xxi; Dexter, Ch. xxi. 
A. The " Dame Schools " in colonial days. 



MODERN EDUCATION 99 

B. Girls were at first taught in the public 

schools only during certain hours. 

C. The establishment of girls' seminaries and 

academies. 
a. Mrs. Emma Willard founded the Troy 
Female Seminary in 1821. 

D. Higher institutions for women. 

a. Miss Mary Lyon founded Mt. Holyoke 
Seminary in 1837; this institution de- 
veloped into Mt. Holyoke College (fully 
organized as a college in 1893). 

b. Eimira Female College (1855), the fi rst 
to graduate women with the same stand- 
ard as prevailed in men's colleges. 

c. Vassar College (1865). 

d. Smith College (1875). 

e. Wellesley College (1875). 

E. Coeducation in the West. 

7. Introduction of European influences into the 
United States. 

A. The Pestalozzian movement. 

B. The Froebelian movement. 

a. Miss Elizabeth Peabody founded the first 
kindergarten in the public schools in 1870. 

b. For a time the kindergarten was con- 
sidered as an aim of philanthropic work 
and was introduced into several cities in 
this way. 

c. It was first permanently adopted as part 
of the public school system by St. Louis 
in 1873. 

d. Kindergarten training classes and 
schools. 



100 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

e. The work of Miss Susan Blow in eluci- 
dating Froebel's ideas. 
C. The Herbartian movement. 

a. Resort of American students of educa- 
tion to Professor Rein's seminary and 
practice school in connection with the 
University of Jena, Germany. 

b. Translation of Herbart's educational 
writings. 

c. Publication of books on methodology 
that are founded upon the Herbartian 
pedagogy. 

d. The " Herbart Club " (1892-1901). 

References. Williams, History of Modern Education ; 
Monroe, *A Brief Course in the History of Education ; 
Quick, Educational Reformers ; Munroe, The Educa- 
tional Ideal ' ; Hughes, Loyola and the Educational System 
of the Jesuits ; Monroe, W. S., Comenius and the Begin- 
nings of Educational Reform ; Laurie, Life and Works of 
Comenius ; Davidson, Rousseau and Education accord- 
ing to Nature ; De Guimps, Pestalozzi, His Life and 
Work ; Pinloche, Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the 
Modern Elementary School; De Garmo, Herbart and 
the Herbartians ; Bowen, Froebel and Education through 
S elf -activity ; Boone, Education in tJie United States; 
Dexter, History of Education in the United States ; 
Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School 
System ; Palmer, The New York Public School ; Luckey, 
The Professional Training of Teachers. 

For other references consult the lists following Ori- 
ental, Greek, Roman, and Mediaeval education. 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX A 

SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL INFLUENCES 
IN EDUCATION BEGINNING WITH THE 
RENAISSANCE 

I. Leading humanists (14th, 15th, and first half of 
16th centuries). 

A. Italy. 

1. Petrarch (1304- 13 74), who popularized 

the classics and wrote Italian. 

2. Boccaccio (13 13-1375), a Greek student 

and writer of Italian tales. 

3. VlTTORINO DA FELTRE (1379-I446), who 

incorporated the classics in the curricu- 
lum and adopted the best features of clas- 
sical method. 

B. Germany and the Netherlands. 

1. Rudolph Agricola(i443-i485), a brilliant 

classical scholar. 

2. John Reuchlin (1455-1522), who intro- 

duced Hebrew study and Bible criticism 
into Germany, thus preparing for the 
Reformation. 

3. Desiderius Erasmus (1467- 1536), who 

was the most remarkable classical scholar 
of his day, translated from Greek, edited 
the Greek New Testament, and satirized 
103 



04 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the pedantry of the mediaeval educa- 
tion. 
C England. 

i. John Colet (1466-15 19), who studied in 
Italy, introduced the humanistic move- 
ment at Oxford, and founded St. Paul's 
School (15 12). 

2. Roger Ascham (15 15-1568), a celebrated 
tutor of Lady Jane Grey and Queen 
Elizabeth, author of " The Scholemas- 
ter," and advocate of gentler measures 
in discipline, and a new method of teach- 
ing Latin. 

II. Popularizers and organizers of education among 
the adherents of the Reformation ; in- 
fluences chiefly humanistic and religious 
(16th century). 

A. Martin Luther (1483-1546), who started the 

Protestant Reformation in Germany, and 
advocated state supervision for educa- 
tion (to be compulsory) in circular let- 
ters to public officials and in sermons to 
the people. His plan contemplated pri- 
mary schools for the people, Latin 
schools, and universities. 

B. Philip Melanchthon (1497- 15 60), the lieu- 

tenant of Luther in furthering his edu- 
cational projects, and the first great 
organizer of German schools. He be- 
came official school inspector and drew 
up the Saxony School Plan (1528), the 



APPENDIX A 105 

first step toward a state school system in 
Germany. There were to be three classes 
— elementary, secondary, and advanced ; 
and mathematics, music, religion, rheto- 
ric, dialectic, and the classics were 
among the branches taught. Melanch- 
thon also did important work as pro- 
fessor, editing classics and writing text- 
books. 
C. Johann Sturm (1 507-1 589) made his contri- 
butions to educational history as rector of 
the Strasburg Gymnasium, which he de- 
veloped into the best classical school of his 
day. He developed a thoroughly organ- 
ized curriculum consisting of a gymnasial 
course of ten years, and an academic 
lecture course of five years. Piety, 
knowledge, and eloquence were his 
aims, and religious study, the classics, 
grammar, rhetoric, and logic, and some 
mathematics were the means of realiz- 
ing them. 

III. Teaching congregations (16th and 17th centu- 
ries), organized for the furtherance of 
education and missionary work within 
the Catholic Church. 
A. The Jesuits, organized in 1540 at the insti- 
gation of Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), 
were originally called the Society of 
Jesus. They provided carefully organ- 
ized collegiate instruction, given by 



106 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

specially trained teachers. Sturm was 
the model for their Inferior Course of five 
grades (Lower, Middle, Upper Gram- 
mar, Humanity, Rhetoric), which was 
followed by a Superior Course of two or 
three years in philosophy, supplemented 
by four to six years of theology. All 
parts of their work were outlined in 
great detail in the Ratio Studiorum, 
issued in 1599. The organization was 
inelastic, the supervision close. Rote 
study, emulation, and mere learning re- 
ceived too much emphasis. At the same 
time, the discipline was relatively mild, 
the lessons were short and definite, and 
the singleness and clearness of aim of the 
system secured remarkably accurate re- 
sults ; hence the Jesuit schools were 
unquestionably superior to other con- 
temporary forms of education in France. 
They are worthy of serious attention as 
a study in thoroughness and organization, 
as well as an example of the dangers of 
overemphasizing routine and emulation. 
As in the Strasburg Gymnasium under 
Sturm, religion, the classics, and the art 
of elegant expression were the chief ob- 
jects of their curriculum. 
B. The Port Royalists (1643- 1660), a ls° called 
Jansenists on account of their adherence 
to the anti- Jesuit reaction led by the 
Catholic bishop Jansen, were organized 



APPENDIX A 107 

under the leadership of St. Cyran, in the 
belief that education is able to regenerate 
society. Their schools were called the 
Petites Ecoles (Little Schools). They 
provided education for any who might 
give signs of ability, emphasizing espe- 
cially primary training. They incorpo- 
rated in their practice many of the 
suggestions advocated by the educa- 
tional reformers. Classes were kept 
small, discipline was mild yet strict and 
effectual, the vernacular (French) was 
emphasized both by teaching in it and by 
texts written in it. Reading was taught 
by giving the sound-equivalents of the 
pronounced letters of words (" phonic " 
method), and the work was rendered 
pleasant by open-air lessons. Amuse- 
ments were used in instruction with good 
effect, but systematic physical training 
was neglected. Many of the Port Royal 
teachers wrote text-books, and their con- 
tributions to logic are particularly note- 
worthy. 
C. The Brethren of the Christian Schools 
(1684) was a teaching society founded 
by La Salle (165 1-1 7 19), who formulated 
the rules for its guidance in The Conduct 
of Schools. His purpose was to develop 
the order into a teaching body for the 
poor, and he provided both elementary 
instruction and technical training for com- 



IOS HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

mercial and industrial pursuits. Silence 
was observed as far as possible, all 
method was prescribed by rigid rule, but 
corporal punishment gave way to pen- 
ances. Simultaneous teaching of pupils 
arranged in grades was invented by La 
Salle. He followed the Jesuits in de- 
manding special preparation for his 
teachers, and to this end he opened a 
Seminary for Schoolmasters in 1685. 
Though the Brethren are subject to 
criticism for overemphasizing religious 
instruction, they deserve commendation 
for being among the first to give serious 
attention to practical branches, such as 
drawing, history, geography, bookkeep- 
ing, architecture, and physics. 

IV. The educational reformers (innovators) (1 6th- 1 8th 
centuries). 
A. France. 

1. Francois Rabelais (1483-1553), the satir- 
ist of scholastic pedantry, the champion 
of the educational fruits of the renais- 
sance, and the forerunner of educational 
reform, wrote the Life of Gargantua and 
Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel (written 
about 1 534-1 535), in which he draws a 
graphic contrast in the education of 
Gargantua between the futility of scho- 
lastic educational methods and the wiser 
pedagogy of a natural method with the 



APPENDIX A 109 

Greek and Latin classics as the basis of 
instruction. Rabelais was the first of 
the school of educational realists, and 
had an undeniable influence on Mon- 
taigne, Locke, and (indirectly) Rousseau. 
His demands included the use of the 
senses, the influence of nature in early 
training, gradual substitution of an im- 
proved method instead of sudden revo- 
lution (" Nature does not endure sudden 
changes witJwut great violence." — Rabe- 
lais), the use of suggestion and emula- 
tion, interest in physical environment, 
open-air exercise, the emphasis of the 
principle of self-activity, and gentle 
measures in discipline, fortified by a 
sympathetic relation between teacher 
and pupil. In a word, naturalism was 
to take the place of pedantry ; sympathy 
and understanding, that of harsh sup- 
pression. 
2. Montaigne (1533-1592) wrote the Educa- 
tion of Children. In it he imitates Rab- 
elais in many points, among them being 
his contempt for scholastic pedantry. 
He had come under the influence of the 
renaissance respecting the subject-matter 
of the curriculum, but he took a decided 
step in advance in his advocacy of more 
rational method. He was a realist, as is 
shown by his emphasis of things before 
words, by his appeal for practical results, 



HO HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

and by his hearty recommendation of 
travel. He attributes great importance 
to history and biography as means of 
moral education, and cautions the teacher 
to study and sympathize with child na- 
ture. Language is to be learned by 
actual use rather than grammatical 
rule. The judgment is to be cultivated. 
Many other wise suggestions are urged, 
some of them but a reiteration of posi- 
tions taken by Rabelais. (See Introduc- 
tion to Rector's Montaigne s Education 
of Children, pp. 7-18.) 
3. Jean Jacques Rousseau (171 2-1 778) was 
an apostle of a principle already in the 
minds of some of his predecessors in 
educational reform, but never previously 
so vigorously emphasized nor so consist- 
ently developed, — the principle, namely, 
that nature must play the chief role in a 
proper scheme of education. This is 
the central theme of the Emile, and by 
it the feasibility of Rousseau's project of 
educational reform, taken in its entirety, 
must be judged. Rousseau lays particu- 
lar stress on the training of the senses in 
observation, upon a careful insight into 
child nature, upon starting with the 
pupil's immediate environment in the 
natural sciences, and on a careful educa- 
tion of girls for the duties of wifehood 
and motherhood. Punishment is to be 



APPENDIX A III 

by the natural consequences, a certain de- 
gree of hardening is recommended, and 
the tutor is to direct and guide the pupil 
with a concealed hand, bringing him un- 
obtrusively into contact with nature in a 
manner that will secure the most benefit. 
During infancy (up to 5) there is to be 
little interference ; during childhood (5 
to 12) the vegetative and animal func- 
tions are allowed free scope for devel- 
opment ; during boyhood intellectual 
acquisition is to go on and a trade to be 
learned; and during youth (15 to 20) the 
sentiments, the religious and the ethical 
impulses are to mature. Principles set 
forth by the earlier reformers (especially 
Montaigne and Locke) are in evidence on 
almost every page of the Emile ; but the 
exuberance of a vivid and logically un- 
trammeled imagination distorts many 
of them almost past recognition. Rous- 
seau may be classified as both naturalist 
and realist. 
B. England. 

1. Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611) embod- 
ied the results of a long educational 
experience in two works of considerable 
merit, the Positions (1581) and the Ele- 
mentarie. Though recognizing three 
stages in education, viz. elementary 
training, the grammar school, and the 
university, he confines his remarks to 



112 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the first in the belief that good pedagogi- 
cal methods are most important in the 
formative period. He suggests the early 
determination of the child's natural apti- 
tudes, and instruction with this in view. 
He insists on the supreme importance of 
the mother tongue, and includes drawing 
and music as branches of the early cur- 
riculum. He makes a plea for education 
of girls, and, still more remarkable con- 
sidering his early date, adduces many 
cogent arguments for institutions for the 
professional training of teachers. Alto- 
gether Mulcaster is a fitting herald of a 
new era in education. 
2. John Milton (1608-1674) acknowledges 
the influence of Comenius in his Trac- 
tate on Education (1644). He criticises 
conditions in the England of his day, 
proposes to reform them by an institu- 
tion which shall embody the whole range 
of education from elementary training 
to university. He defines the purpose 
of education to be " to repair the mines 
of our first Parents by regaini?ig to know 
God aright." Studies, exercise, and 
diet are the matters over which education 
is to have jurisdiction. Latin should be 
studied more for its content and less 
from the dry, linguistic standpoint. The 
Italian pronunciation should be used. 
It is largely through the classics that 



APPENDIX A 113 

other branches of the curriculum are to 
be mastered. Physical training is to be 
largely in the open air, and somewhat 
martial in character. Milton is a verbal 
realist 
3. John Locke (1632-1704) published his 
Thoughts concerning Education in 1693. 
He was influenced by Montaigne and in 
turn influenced Rousseau (see Quick's 
edition of the Thoughts, pp. xlviii-liii 
and Rector's Montaigne's Education of 
Children, pp. 13-18). He advocated 
tutorial instruction, and wrote his book 
to bring about reform in the education of 
the English gentleman. He advocated 
the hardening process to extremes. His 
treatment of moral training is in the 
main good, and he makes a plea against 
the severe punishment too often found in 
the schools of his time. Locke devotes 
much attention to the subject of habit, 
as we should expect in view of his theory 
that the mind is at birth like a blank 
sheet of paper, and gets its form entirely 
through experience. Both corporal pun- 
ishment and rewards are unjustifiable. 
Manners are to be inculcated by example. 
There is relatively little that advances 
upon Montaigne in Locke's suggestions 
regarding intellectual education. Words 
are to be related with things as their 
symbols, — a position which classifies him 



114 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

among the realists. The English should 
receive the first attention, then French, 
then Latin. He advocated trade edu- 
cation even for the nobility. 
C. Germany. 

i. Wolfgang Ratke (Ratichius ; Ratich) 
( 1 571-1635) does not interest us because 
of his absurd claims to have discovered a 
means of accomplishing unheard-of edu- 
cational results, but because he asserted 
some excellent truths along with much 
that was inexpedient. In his Methodus 
Nova and elsewhere are to be found the 
following principles : 1. Follow nature. 
2. One thing at a time. 3. Assure the 
results by repetition. 4. Use the mother 
tongue as the subject of early instruction 
and in presenting the other branches of 
later instruction. 5. Do not use con- 
straint. 6. Do not learn by rote, but 
train the reasoning powers. 7. Primary 
instruction is a universal right. 8. Teach 
pupils to rely on personal experience 
rather than authority. 9. Rules must 
be verified by examples. 
2, John Amos Comenius (1 592-1670) can 
be compared only to Pestalozzi in his 
influence in determining the theory upon 
which modern elementary education is 
based. This theory is that the child can 
be educated only by bringing him into 
first-hand contact with things, or at least 



APPENDIX A 115 

with the symbols which come nearest to 
representing them (pictures). It is thus, 
he holds, that the child is to acquire his 
language, which should always be the 
mother tongue first and foremost. Co- 
menius's most influential works are the 
elementary text-book called Orbis Pictus 
(1657), which associates words, corre- 
sponding pictures, and related ideas in 
a very ingenious way (this is the first 
children's picture book, — the original of 
the long line of A B C-books and early 
readers which have followed); and the 
book on method called Didactica Magna 
(Great Didactic), published in 1657, 
which gives us in detail his educational 
theory. Education is to begin at birth 
and end at twenty-four. The first six 
years are to be spent in the mother school 
(home), where accurate use of the senses, 
correct speech, and moral lessons are to 
be the pupil's acquirements. The time 
from seven to twelve is to be devoted to 
the vernacular school (elementary), where 
reading and writing the mother tongue, 
drawing, arithmetic, civil government, 
history, and geography are in the curri- 
culum. From thirteen to eighteen is to 
be devoted to the Latin-school (gymnas- 
ium), where grammar, geometry, astron- 
omy, physics, rhetoric, logic, and ethics 
receive the chief attention. The univer- 



Il6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



sity course is to complete the student's 
career, offering an education that fits for 
the various professions or provides gen- 
eral culture. Aside from his important 
work in showing the way to proper 
elementary text-books, and in defining 
the broad principles of educational 
organization, we owe to Comenius the 
most lucid enunciation of the method 
and principles of modern elementary 
education made by any of the reformers. 
Indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that 
modern elementary education is but the 
expansion and practical application in 
elaborate detail of principles that he 
advocated. The most important of these 
are as follows : i. Education aims to 
prepare for complete living ; hence it 
should be universal. 2. Education 
should follow nature, and be adapted to 
the child's psychological development. 

3. The condition of the mind depends 
upon that of the body; hence there 
must be provision for physical training. 

4. The mother tongue should be first 
acquired, and then made the medium of 
all other instruction. 5. Nature must 
be studied that the child may learn to use 
his senses properly and to acquire knowl- 
edge at first hand. 6. Since early 
training of the instincts and habits is of 
supreme importance, the mother must be 



APPENDIX A 117 

educated that her early work in this line 
may be good. 7. The curriculum must 
be enriched by practical branches such 
as geography and history. 8. The 
branches must be correlated into a single 
unit of thought (classification, etc.). 

9. Teachers need special training. 

10. Schools need better grading and 
supervision. 11. Languages must be 
taught for use, not as the basis of gram- 
matical study. Of these several princi- 
ples the teaching of the mother tongue, 
the use of objects and pictures, and the 
need of school organization and public 
support are the ones that speak most 
prominently of Comenius. It hardly 
need be said that realism was his educa- 
tional creed. Comenius was chiefly 
influenced by Ratke and Bacon, and was 
himself influential either directly or in- 
directly in shaping the views of Francke, 
Rousseau, Milton, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. 

V. Early experiments in educational organization 
dominated by reform principles (18th 
century). 
A. August Hermann Francke (1663-1 727) is a 
unique figure in the history of education 
on account of the remarkable organizing 
ability which he displayed. Convinced 
of the soundness of the main contentions 
of the reformers, and keenly alive to the 



Il8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

deplorable condition of the poor, he 
started with nothing but his vast energy 
and resourcefulness as a leader, and 
built up a philanthropic educational 
institution which is even to this day a 
monument to his name in the famous 
university town of Halle (Germany). 
Francke began in 1694 with a capital of a 
few thalers which he had collected in 
alms, and built out of this slender pittance 
an establishment that included at the 
time of his death the following : 1. A 
school for the poor. 2. A Latin school for 
the more prosperous. 3. A school for 
the nobility called the Pedagogium. 
4. An orphans' home. 5. A training 
school for teachers. 
B. Johann Bernard Basedow (i 723-1 790) re- 
calls Ratke in the absurdity of his claims 
and his inability to substantiate them. 
He was a disciple of Rousseau's doctrine 
of naturalistic education, though he did 
not push it to the full logical extreme in 
the way that Rousseau did. After having 
tried the experiment of educating his 
daughter as is suggested in the Emile, he 
inaugurated the experiment in a far more 
elaborate way in the institution given the 
grandiloquent title of Philanthropinum. 
The project soon came to grief, perhaps 
more owing to the unwarrantable claims 
and unsuccessful management of its 



APPENDIX A II9 

founder than to the inherent unsoundness 
of the principles that it strove to carry 
out. Its service consisted in calling 
attention to the artificial rearing of the 
average child of the better classes, and 
in pointing the way to a practical appli- 
cation of the best teachings of Rousseau. 
Basedow wrote a Book on Methods, and 
an Elementary Book, in the latter of which 
the influence of Comenius is shown on 
every page. 

VI. Educational reform from the psychological stand- 
point (last quarter of the 18th and first 
half of the 19th centuries). 
A. John Henry Pestalozzi (1 746-1 827), to 
whom modern elementary education 
owes its existence, entered upon a 
career dedicated to regenerating the 
peasantry of Switzerland. After try- 
ing to accomplish this result by in- 
dustrial reforms (improved farming, 
industrial school, etc.) with no marked 
success, he came to the conclusion that 
a combination of industrial, moral, and 
intellectual education was best adapted 
to the needs of the poorer classes. As 
an agency for social regeneration su- 
perior even to the school, he deter- 
mined to seek the cooperation of the 
home, and when he organized schools 
connected with his various establish- 



120 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



ments, he planned them after the 
home. This central thought is espe- 
cially emphasized in his most influential 
work, the Leonard and Gertrude (1781). 
Pestalozzi began his experimental farm- 
ing at a small estate to which he gave 
the name of Neuhof. The experiment 
lasted from 1771 to about 1775, when 
the farm was converted into an indus- 
trial school in which he began his actual 
teaching. His connection with this 
project covered a span of only five 
years. The eighteen years between 
1780 and 1798 were devoted to author- 
ship on educational subjects. Pestalozzi 
was hi charge of the orphanage at Stanz 
during 1798 to 1799, and we see here 
the first traces of the pedagogical 
method which he was later to mature. 
From 1799 to 1804 he was assistant 
in a school at Burgdorf, and here he 
carried out his ideas even to the extent 
of arousing the jealousy of the head- 
master. The best part of his life, that 
in which his most influential work oc- 
curred, was passed at a school at Yver- 
don, established according to his own 
ideas. He taught here from 1805 to 
1825, and was visited by officials from 
Germany and elsewhere, who inspected 
his plans with a view to national adop- 
tion. Pestalozzi was no organizer; 



APPENDIX A 121 

hence we can derive no lessons in 
school administration or school economy 
from him. His work, nevertheless, 
changed the whole face of primary 
education. His supreme purpose was 
to prepare men to be social and moral 
beings. The plain corollary of such an 
educational aim is state provision of 
schools. Another principle for which 
he stood is that the school must have 
about it more of the spirit and atmos- 
phere of the home, less of that of the 
barn. But the reason why Pestalozzi 
is the first of the line of reformers to 
base his contentions on a keen psycho- 
logical insight is that he maintained 
at all points, both in theory and in 
practice, that knowledge begins in 
sense-impressions (Anschauungen), and 
develops into general truth through 
mental elaboration. Aside from the 
principles just mentioned, the most 
important are as follows: I. Connect 
language with sense-objects. 2. Pro- 
ceed from the simple to the complex, 
developing steps that are psychologi- 
cally related. 3. Opportunity must 
be allowed after each step for the 
pupil to assimilate the knowledge. 
4. The pupil's individuality must be 
preserved. 5. Education should aim 
not to cram the mind with information, 



122 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

but to develop character and power. 
It will be remarked that none of these 
propositions is absolutely novel. Hence 
Pestalozzi's claim to our gratitude lies 
not so much in their enunciation, as in 
his having shown the way to their 
concrete application. Comenius and 
Rousseau were perhaps the strongest 
influences in determining Pestalozzi's 
thinking, but he transcended both be- 
cause of the possession of that rarest 
of endowments, a great and sympa- 
thetic heart which pulsated instinctively 
to the weakness and dependence of 
childhood. 
B. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (i 782-1 852) 
systematized the educational ideas that 
Pestalozzi had left in more or less chaotic 
form, emphasizing the latter's theory of 
the connection between the home and 
the school. This he was especially com- 
petent to do not only by reason of native 
fitness for the task, but also because he 
had the unusual opportunity of having 
spent some time as disciple of Pestalozzi 
at Yverdon. Froebel's mystical philoso- 
phy, expounded in the Education of Man, 
is of less interest to the general student 
of education than his practical work in 
developing the Kindergarten. One con- 
siderable section of this work, however, 
is devoted to a discussion of the topic of 



APPENDIX A 123 

the relationship between the school and 
the family. It is this point, systemati- 
cally developed, and combined with the 
notion that play may be used by the 
teacher as an educative agency, that has 
furnished the groundwork of the whole 
Kindergarten movement. Froebel em- 
ployed certain systematic exercises in 
elaborating his ideas. The so-called gifts 
were devised for the acquirement of 
knowledge, the so-called occupation (in- 
cluding songs and games) for its motor 
expression. Among the former are the 
simple geometric solids (sphere, cube, 
etc.), which aid in analysis, synthesis, 
contrast, etc. ; among the latter the 
various forms of mat-weaving. 
C. Johann Friedrich Herbart ( 1 776- 1 84 1 ) ap- 
plied psychology to the development of 
method. He is hence regarded by many 
as the father of scientific pedagogy. He 
delivered lectures on this subject at the 
University of Konigsberg, where he 
founded a famous practice-school and 
pedagogical seminary. Aside from many 
works on psychological and philosophical 
subjects, he wrote a number on educa- 
tion, chief of which is the General 
Pedagogy ( A llgemeine Pddagogik). The 
moral side of education is most important 
for Herbart, and to secure the end of 
character or moral will he relies on his 



124 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

two fundamental principles of appercep- 
tion and interest. Apperception means 
that the new presentation shall get its ex- 
planation and elucidation by bringing it 
into connection with that part of past 
experience which has some likeness to 
it. As this part of experience is probably 
that which has greatest interest for one 
(as is shown by the very fact that it per- 
sists), it becomes evident that the new will 
gain meaning and interest (motive-power) 
by this association with the old. 

VII. Famous educators of the 19th century. 

A. Thomas Arnold (1 795-1 842) became head 
master of Rugby in 1828, and it is his 
work in administration and discipline in 
this famous English public school which 
has brought him prominently before the 
educational world. He expressed his 
educational views in sermons and in 
letters to friends. It was his belief that 
character is fully as much an aim of 
education as letters, and it was this view 
which shaped his administrative policy. 
Though a thorough advocate of the 
English notion that the education of a 
gentleman involves his careful training 
in the classics, he yet maintained that 
the pedantry that too often characterized 
Latin and Greek in the teaching at the 
English public schools should yield to a 



APPENDIX A 125 

more interesting method. He would 
have geography taught as an adjunct to 
history. It was Dr. Arnold's personality 
that made him a power, and he illustrates 
the need of this rare quality in the 
teacher. 
B. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was the most 
famous philosophical writer of England 
during the century just passed. Though 
he had little practical knowledge of 
education, either on its theoretical or its 
practical side, he was not backward in 
expressing his disapproval of the state of 
education in England during the middle 
decades of the last century. His contri- 
butions to the literature of education con- 
sist of four essays, originally published as 
magazine articles, and later printed in 
book form under the title, Education, 
Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. The 
most significant of these discussions, 
considering the time that it was written, 
is the first, which attempts to determine 
the relative value of the several branches 
of human knowledge, in order to see 
which should be given the chief place in 
the curriculum. The worth of a thing is 
regarded by Spencer as fixed by its power 
to satisfy human needs. And these needs 
are those which contribute to self-preser- 
vation, which aid in rearing offspring, 
which minister to social relations, and 



126 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

which furnish occupations for leisure, — 
named here in the order of their impor- 
tance. Hence the several branches of 
human knowledge are important as they 
satisfy these needs. The trend of the 
argument is to put the sciences in place 
of the classics, which at one time usurped 
so much of the student's time. In moral 
education Spencer has some good sug- 
gestions, as when he advocates punish- 
ment by consequences. Nor can one 
quarrel with his views on physical edu- 
cation. Many of the views stated by 
Spencer are now accepted as common- 
places of school economy, and hence his 
work is no longer so influential as it once 
was. Nor can we find much that was 
really original. 
C. Horace Mann (1796-1859) would be gener- 
ally selected as the most prominent figure 
in American education. His work was 
that of a pioneer. His efforts aimed at 
two things, viz. better oganization and 
supervision of the elementary schools, 
and a more efficient and professionally 
trained teaching force. Born in Massa- 
chusetts, the son of poor but upright 
parents, making his graduation from an 
unusually successful college course at 
Brown University by his indomitable 
energy, Horace Mann's early life sug- 
gests to us the typical American charac- 



APPENDIX A 127 

teristics of self-reliance and self-help. 
He chose law for his profession, and 
soon became interested in public affairs, 
serving from 1827 to 1837 in the Massa- 
chusetts Legislature. As President of 
the Massachusetts Senate during the 
session of 1837, he signed a bill consti- 
tuting a State Board of Education, whose 
duties were to collect returns from 
schools, to study the best methods, and 
to make reports on the condition of pub- 
lic elementary education in the Common- 
wealth, and to suggest means for its 
improvement. Mr. Mann at once be- 
came secretary of this Board, and served 
in this capacity until elected to the 
Lower House of Congress in 1848. It 
is to this period that we are indebted for 
his most significant services to the 
American public school. Mr. Mann's 
work in Massachusetts had several im- 
portant results: I. He aroused the 
public to a feeling of the need of schools 
supported by the people for the people. 
2. He pointed to the necessity of the 
expansion of the schools both in num- 
bers and in curriculum. 3. He empha- 
sized the necessity of better organization 
and supervision, and did much to indi- 
cate the lines along which improvement 
was to be made. 4. He helped to edu- 
cate the taxpayer to the idea that it is 



128 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the best economy to provide wisely and 
liberally for public education. 5. He 
called attention to the backward state of 
American schools in methods, as con- 
trasted with contemporary European 
education. 6. He championed the main- 
tenance of special schools for the pro- 
fessional training of teachers, and was 
the chief force in securing the first in 
this country for his native state. 7. He 
was almost a pioneer in creating Ameri- 
ca's distinctive contribution to educa- 
tional literature, viz. public school re- 
ports. 
D. Henry Barnard (1811-1900) was first sec- 
retary of the Connecticut State Board of 
Education. He called together the first 
body of American teachers ever assem- 
bled as a teachers' institute in 1839. He 
was the first United States Commissioner 
of Education, appointed when the Na- 
tional Bureau of Education was estab- 
lished in 1867. But Mr. Barnard's most 
permanent and widely useful work is 
founding and editing The American 
Journal of Education, founded in 1855, 
and running through thirty-one volumes 
up to 1 88 1. The journal has collected 
and rendered accessible an immense store 
of material, from all sources, and on all 
subjects from history of education to 
method. 



APPENDIX B 

SUMMARY OF THE LEADING FACTS IN THE 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEW 
YORK STATE 

I. In colonial times. 

A. Under the Dutch, the pioneers in elementary- 

common school education in America. The 
first official act (1629) related to ways and 
means of supplying a minister and school- 
master. First public school opened in 1633 ; 
a second one in 1652. Private schools also 
flourished during the 17th century. Schools 
supported by gifts, general taxation, and rat- 
able tuition fees. Towns reserved lots for 
school purposes (Flatbush, Brooklyn). 

B. Under the English, the governors, being aristo- 

cratic in training, generally opposed popular 
education. They required, (1) that instruc- 
tion be given in the English tongue, and (2) 
that all licenses to teach be obtained from the 
Archbishop of London, the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, or of themselves. Whatever was 
done for the schools seems to have been the 
result of the Dutch influence. Only three 
legislative acts were passed between 1664 and 
1775, and all these referred to secondary and 
129 



130 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

higher education. King's College (now Co- 
lumbia University) was founded in 1754. 

II. Under independence and statehood, New York 
claims primacy in two particulars, (1) the 
establishment of the first elementary common 
free schools, and (2) the development of an 
adequate state system of education. The fol- 
lowing agents and factors have been promi- 
nent in both particulars : — 

A. The Board of Regents (of the University of the 

State of New York) was created in 1784 by an 
act reorganizing King's College. In 1787 the 
duties of the Board were changed and en- 
larged. The Regents' Examinations began 
in 1828. Examinations in the preliminary 
branches began in 1864; in the advanced 
subjects in 1878. In 1889 the supervision of 
training classes and schools was transferred 
from the Regents to the Department of Public 
Instruction. In 1904 the Board was reor- 
ganized. 

B. Governor George Clinton (1) secured the reor- 

ganization of King's College and the crea- 
tion of the Board of Regents; (2) obtained 
an act creating the " Gospel and School Lands "; 
and (3) secured the passage of an act in 1795, 
appropriating $100,000 annually for five years 
for the support of common schools. This act 
became the corner stone of the state educa- 
tional system. 

C. Governor DeWitt Clinton (1) aided in the found- 



APPENDIX B 131 

ing of the Public School Society in New York, 
and was its first president ; (2) favored legis- 
lation in behalf of the common schools; 
(3) recommended the establishment of a 
teachers' seminary; (4) advocated the adop- 
tion of the Lancastrian system of instruc- 
tion ; and (5) secured an appropriation in 
1827 amounting to $150,000, for the " Litera- 
ture Fund" established the same year. 

D. Gideon Hawley, the first State Superintendent 

of Schools (18 1 3-182 1), produced order out 
of chaos by providing for the proper manage- 
ment of the school fund, by organizing the 
state into districts for better supervision, by 
lengthening the school year, by increasing 
the school attendance, and by setting in 
motion the intricate machinery of the State 
School System. 

E. Extent and manner of supervision. 

X 8i2 — office of State Superintendent and Town 
Commissioner of Common Schools created. 

!8i4 — inspectors from among the citizens ap- 
pointed to aid Town Commissioner. 

1 82 1 — State Superintendency abolished and 
duties performed by the Secretary of State. 

I 84 I — deputy-superintendents (later called 
county superintendents) created. 

r 343 — town commissioners and inspectors 
abolished and Town Superintendent of Schools 
created. 

!847 — county superintendents abolished. 

1854 — Department of Public Instruction estab- 



132 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

lished, the executive officer being the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

1856 — town superintendents abolished and 
commissioners reestablished. 

1904 — Department of Public Instruction abol- 
ished, and a State Board of Education and 
office of Commissioner of Education estab- 
lished. 

F. School funds. 

1. The Permanent School Fund, founded in 
1805, obtained from the sale of public lands, 
etc. 

2. The Literature Fund, established in 1827, 
maintained by annual appropriations by the 
State Legislature. 

3. The United States Deposit Fund, established 
during Jackson's administration as President. 
New York's share was $4,014,520.71. 

4. Free School Fund (money raised by public 
taxation), established about 1867. 

G. Professional preparation of teachers. 

1826 — Teachers' Seminary recommended by 
Governor DeWitt Clinton. 

1827 — establishment oi the Literature Fund 
for the preparation of teachers. 

1834 — Regents authorized to expend part of 
Literature Fund, resulting in the establish- 
ment of "training classes." 

1843 — first State Teachers' Institute held at 
Ithaca. 

1844 — first State Normal School opened at Al- 
bany (became State Normal College in 1890). 



APPENDIX B 



133 



1863 — Oswego Normal School opened. 
1870 — New York Normal College opened. 
1889 — training classes transferred from the 

Board of Regents to the Department of Public 

Instruction. 
1904 — training schools put in charge of the 

Third Deputy Commissioner of Education. 



APPENDIX C 

OUTLINES OF MODERN EDUCATIONAL 
CLASSICS 

References are to the following editions : 

Montaigne, The Education of Children (translated and edited by 
Rector). Appleton : International Education Series. 

Milton, A Tractate on Education (edited by Browning). Cam- 
bridge University Press : Pitt Press Series. 

Locke, Some Thoughts concerning Education (edited by Quick). 
Cambridge University Press : Pitt Press Series. 

Rousseau, Emile, or Concerning Education (extracts by Steeg). 
D. C. Heath & Co. : Heath's Pedagogical Library. 

Pestalozzi, Leoiiard and Gertrude (translated and abridged by 
Channing). D. C. Heath & Co. : Heath's Pedagogical Library. 

Spencer, Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. D. Apple- 
ton & Co. 

Montaigne's Educational Theory 

The Education of Children 
I. Introduction. 

Biography, pp. 1-6. 

Relation to Locke and Rousseau, pp. 13-17. 
Montaigne's Essays, published 1580-1588. 
Locke's Some Thoughts concerning Education, published 1693. 
Rousseau's Emile, published 1762. 
Modern educational views anticipated by Montaigne, p. 18. 
II. Of the Education of Children, pp. 19-85. 

Insight into Montaigne's habits of thought, pp. 19-23. 
Respect for the classics, showing humanistic influences. 
134 



APPENDIX C 135 

Proper training of children difficult, pp. 24, 25. 

Education limited to the nobility and private (tutorial), pp. 

26-29. 
Method : cultivate judgment rather than memory, pp. 29-34. 
Value of travel and history to develop broadmindedness, pp. 

34, 42-48. 
Danger of parents spoiling children, pp. 35, 37, 3%- 
Realism shown in the suggestion that the world of men and 

manners be the text-book, and that the educational aim be 

practical, pp. 46-50. 
Study to be rendered interesting and pleasant, pp. 50-53, 61-63. 
Inculcation of virtue: practice, not theory, pp. 54, 55. 
A child's ability to be the criterion of his education, pp. 56-58. 
The pupil not to be a bookworm, p. 58. 
Wisdom, manners, and tact practical aims of education, pp. 

63-66. 
All learning should result in action, pp. 66-68. 
"Things to precede words," pp. 68-71. 
Affectation and pedantry criticised, pp. 68, 74, 75. 
Montaigne's own education, pp. 77-85. 

Milton's Educational Theory 
A Tractate on Education 

Introduction on Milton as a reformer, pp. xi-xxv. 

Milton's statement of his purpose, pp. 1-3. 

The aim of education, pp. 3, 4. 

Importance of languages, p. 4. 

Futility of mediaeval methods, p. 5. 

The better method, pp. 5-7. 

A liberal education defined, p. 8. 

Age limits : 12-21, p. 8. 

Plan of an educational institution including school and university, 

pp. 8, 9. 
Curriculum, 9-17. 

Grammar : rules and pronunciation, pp. 9, 10. 

Reading of books on educational theory, p. 10. 

Mathematics, p. n. 



136 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Writers on agriculture, p. 11. 
Greek begun, p. 12. 
Other practical subjects, pp. 12, 13. 
Religion, ethics, and law, pp. 13-15. 
Hebrew, p. 15. 

History, the drama, and eloquence, pp. 15-17. 
Physical exercises, pp. 17-23. 
Use of weapons, p. 18. 
Wrestling, p. 19. 
Music, pp. 19, 20. 
Military maneuvers, pp. 20, 21. 
Excursions and walks, p. 21. 

Locke's Educational Theory 
Some Thoughts concerning Education 

Aim of education, §§ 1, 33. 

Aim of this work, § 6. 

Hardening, §§ 4, 5. 

Man is what education makes him, §§ 32, 217. 

Discipline, §§ 43-65 ; 72-87. 

Choice of a tutor, §§ 88-94. 

Importance of habit, §§ 10, 18, 66, 127. 

Imitation of companions, § 70. 

Use of games, §§ 130, 149-154. 

The course of study, §§ 155-195- 

Recreations, §§ 196-200. 

Learning a trade, §§ 201-21 1. 

Value of travel, §§ 212-215. 

Rousseau's Educational Theory 
Emile, or Concerning Education 

Aim of education, pp. 11-15. 
Earliest period, pp. 24-30. 
Children over-taught, pp. 39-42. 
Love due to children, pp. 42-44. 
Reasoning to be postponed, pp. 52-54. 



APPENDIX C 137 

Sense of ownership, pp. 63-67. 

Moral education, pp. 68-74. 

The memory, pp. 77-80. 

Sense-training, pp. 96-113. 

Result at 12, pp. 113-119. 

Age of study, pp. 121-123, 128-132, 138-147, 155-157- 

Pestalozzi's Educational Theory 
Leonard and Gertrude 

I. Principal characters of the story and what they typify. 

A. Gertrude : the idea that social^ reform is to spring from 

woman's activity within the sphere of the home. 

B. Leonard : the idea that a naturally weak moral character 

may gather strength from feminine influence, even though 
the bonds of habit are pretty well forged. 

C. Leonard and Gertrude's children : the influence of good 

moral instruction on the young. 

D. Arner : the beneficent arm of just government mitigating 

the hardships of the poor. 

E. Hummel : the element of evil in human society and the 

harm it does. 
II. Scene : the village of Bonnal typifies human society, first in the 
state in which Pestalozzi found it, and second, after re- 
generation through industry, moral order, and practical 
education. 
III. Chapters of the story that unfold Pestalozzi's educational views. 

A. Moral influence of the proper home spirit. Chs. IV, VIII, 

XXIII. 

B. Gertrude's Sabbath with her children as exemplifying moral 

and religious instruction. Ch. X. 

C. Contrast between the moral effects of domestic order and 

disorder. Ch. XVI. 

D. Gertrude's method of teaching. Chs. XVII (toward end), 

XXV. 

E. Regeneration of society through domestic order and skilled 

(educated) industry. Chs. XXII, XXXI, XXXII ; pp. 
174 (middle), 178, 179. 



138 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Spencer's Educational Theory 
Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical 

I. The question of educational values (the problem of the cur- 
riculum) . 

A. Culture (ornamental) vs. utility, pp. 1-12. 

B. Order of value of kinds of knowledge : self-preservation 

(13-27) ; gaining a livelihood (27-39) 5 rearing of off- 
spring (40-51) ; citizenship (51-59) ; ornamental knowl- 
edge (59~ 6 3)- 

C. Supreme value of science, pp. 63-87. 

II. The question of method (problem of pedagogical procedure). 

A. Contemporary methods criticised, pp. 88-101. 

B. Value of the following Pestalozzian principles : simple to 

complex (115) ; concrete to abstract (116-117) ; race de- 
velopment in knowledge the cue to individual's develop- 
ment (117-119) ; empirical to rational (1 19-120) ; educa- 
tion to be by self-development, i.e. self-instruction or 
self-evolution (120-122, 155-157) ; pleasurable excite- 
ment of happy activity in the pupil (122-124, 157-161). 
C . Order of education in infancy and early childhood : sense- 
culture (124-128); object-lessons and observation (128- 
138) ; drawing (138-147) ; elementary geometry (147- 

153). 

III. Moral education (Ch. Ill), emphasizing natural as opposed to 

artificial punishment (punishment by consequences). 

IV. Physical training (Ch. IV). 



INDEX 



This Index is subdivided into an Index of Titles, an Index of Names, 
and an Index of Subjects. Topics not listed under one heading may be 
found by consulting the other headings. 



INDEX OF TITLES 



Reference books and text-books are not included. 



Address to Princes (Ratke), 56. 

Address to the Friends of Humanity 
and to Persons in Power, on 
Schools, on Education, and its 
Influence on Public Happiness, 
An (Basedow), 62. 

Address to the German Nation (Fichte), 

63. 

Advancement of Learning (Bacon), 58. 

^Esthetic Revelation of the World as 
the Chief Function of Education, 
The (Herbart), 66. 

Affection of Fathers, Of the (Mon- 
taigne), 53. 

American Journal of Education, The 
(Barnard), 97, 128. 

Atrium [Interior-court] (Comenius),5o. 

Book of the Dead (Egypt), 3. 

Capitularies (Charlemagne), 34. 
Classical Letters (Sturm), 49. 
Conduct of Schools, The (La Salle), 

5 1 . io 7- 
Conduct of the Understanding (Locke), 

57- 
Confessions (Rousseau), 61. 
Cyropozdia (Xenophon), 16. 

De Oratore [On Oratory] (Cicero), 26. 

Economics (Xenophon), 16. 
Education, On [Ueber Padagogik] 

(Kant), 62. 
Education by Development (Froebel), 

69. 
Education, Intellectual, Moral, and 

Physical (Spencer), 71, 125. 
Outline of, 138. 



Education of Children, Of the (Mon- 
taigne), 53, 109. 
Outiine of, 134, 135. 

Education of Man (Froebel), 69, 
122. 

Elementarie (Mulcaster), 54, 55, in. 

Elementarwerk [Elementary Book] 
, (Basedow), 62, 119. 

Emile, or Education (Rousseau), 60, 
61, no, in. 
Outline of, 136, 137. 

Essay concerning Human Understand- 
ing (Locke), 57. 

Evening Hour of a Hermit (Pesta- 
lozzi), 64. 

Examination (Sturm), 49. 

First Liberal Education of Children, 

On the (Erasmus), 47. 
Five Classics (China), 4. 
Four Books (China), 4. 

General Pedagogy [Allgemeine Pada- 
gogik] (Herbart), 123. 

Great Didactic, The [Didactica Magna] 
(Comenius), 58, 59, 115. 

Habit, Of (Montaigne), 53. 

Heroic Deeds ofPantagruel (Rabelais), 

52, 108. 
History (Montaigne), 53. 
How Gertrude teaches her Children 

(Pestalozzi), 64. 

Iliad (Homer), 10. 

Instauratio Magna [Great Instaura- 

tion] (Bacon), 58, 59. 
Institutes of Oratory (Quintilian), 

27. 



141 



142 



INDEX 



Janua Linguarum Reserata [The 
Gate of Tongues Unlocked] (Co- 
menius), 59. 

Laws (Plato), 17. 

Laws of the Twelve Tables (Rome), 
23, 24. 

Leonard and Gertrude (Pestalozzi), 
64, 120. 
Outline of, 137. 

Letters to the Mayors and Aldermen of 
all the Cities of Germany in be- 
half of Christian Schools (Luther), 
48. 

Life of Gargantua (Rabelais), 52, 
108. 

Methodical Instruction, both in Natu- 
ral and Biblical Religion (Base- 
dow), 62, 119. 

Methodus Nova [New Method] 
(Ratke), 56, 114. 

Mutter- und Koselieder [Mother and 
Nursery Songs] (Froebel), 70. 

Nouvelle Heloise (Rousseau), 61. 
Novum Organum (Bacon), 58. 

Odyssey (Latin translation by Livius 

Andronicus), 24. 
Old Testament (Judea), 5. 
Orbis (Sensualium) Pictus [The 

World of Sense-objects Illustrated] 

(Comenius), 59, 115. 
Order of Studies, On the (Erasmus), 

47- 
Origin of Inequality (Rousseau), 61. 
Outlines of Educational Doctrine 

(Herbart), 66. 



Pedagogics of the Kindergarten (Froe- 
bel), 69. 

Pedantry, Of (Montaigne), 53. 

Pestalozzi' s Idea of an A B C of 
Sense- perception (Herbart), 66. 

Plan (Sturm), 49. 

Politics (Aristotle), 18. 

Positions (Mulcaster), 54, 55, in. 

Ratio Studiorum [Plan of Studies] 

(Jesuits), 50. 
Republic (Plato), 16. 

Saxony School Plan, The (Melanch- 

thon), 49, 104. 
Scholemaster, The (Ascham), 53, 104. 
School of Infancy, The (Comenius), 

59- 

Science of Education (Herbart), 66. 

Science of Knowledge [Wissenschafts- 
lehre] (Fichte), 63. 

Sermon on the Duty of sending Chil- 
dren to School (Luther), 48. 

Social Contract (Rousseau), 61. 

Some Thoughts concerning Educa- 
tion (Locke), 57, 113. 
Outline of, 136. 

Talmud (Judea), 5. 
Tractate on Education, A (Milton), 
54, "2. 
Outline of , 135, 136. 

Vedas (India), 5. 

Vestibulum [Entrance-hall] (Come- 
nius), 59. 
Vocation of the Scholar (Fichte), 63. 

Zend-Avesta (Persia), 6. 



INDEX OF NAMES 



Only names of persons are included. Where several page references are given, the 
most important are in bold-faced type. 



Abelard, 37. 

Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 46. 
Agricola, Rudolph, 47, 103. 
Albertus Magnus, 37. 
Alcuin, 33, 34. 
Alexander the Great, 19. 
Alfred the Great, 34. 
Anselm, Saint, 37. 
Anthony, Saint, 32. 
Aquinas, Saint Thomas, 37. 
Archimedes, 19. 
Aristotle, 17 f ., 36, 38. 
Arnauld, 51. 
Arnold, Thomas, 124 f. 
Ascham, Roger, 53, 104. 
Augustine, Saint, 32. 

Bacon, Sir Francis, 58, 117. 
Bacon, Roger, 44. 
Barnard, Henry, 96 f., 98, 128. 
Basedow, Johann Bernard, 61 f., 81, 

118 f. 
Bell, 81. 

Benedict, Saint, 32. 
Blow, Susan, 100. 
Boccaccio, 46, 103. 
Bonaventura, 37. 

Carter, James G., 98. 

Cassian, 32. 

Charlemagne, 33 f. 

Cheever, Ezekiel, 90, 91. 

Christ, 31. 

Chrysoloras, 46. 

Chrysostom, Saint, 32. 

Cicero, 26. 

Clement of Alexandria, 32. 

Clinton, Governor DeWitt, 130 f ., 132. 



Clinton, Governor George, 94, 130. 
Cnaius Naevius, 24. 
Colet, John, 47, 104. 
Columbus, Christopher, 45. 
Comenius, John Amos, 58 ff., 65, 71, 

81, 112, 114 ff., 119, 122. 
Comte, Auguste, 74. 
Confucius, 4. 
Cyran, Saint (see Duvergier de 

Hauranne). 

Dante, 46. 

Davenport, John, 91. 
Dewey, John, 74 f . 
Duvergier de Hauranne, 51. 

Erasmus, Desiderius, 47, 103 f. 
Erigena, 37. 
Euclid, 19. 

Feltre, Vittorino da, 46, 103. 
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 63. 
Francke, August Hermann, 79, 117 f. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 93. 
Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 69 ff.. 75, 
81, 117, 122 f. 

Gorgias, 13. 
Guarino, Battista, 47. 
Gutenberg, 45. 

Harvard, John, 90. 
Hawley, Gideon, 131. 
Hecker, 79. 
Henry VIII, 49- 

Herbart, Johann Friedrich, 65 ff., 81, 
100, 123 f . 



143 



144 



INDEX 



Higginson, John, 91. 
Hippias, 13. 

Jansen, 106. 
Jerome, Saint, 32. 
Justinian, Emperor, 32. 

Kant, Immanuel, 62 f ., 69. 

La Fontaine, 51. 

Lancaster, Joseph, 81, 96. 

La Salle, Jean Baptiste de, 51, 107 f. 

Livius Andronicus, 24. 

Locke, John, 56 f., 65, 67, 69, 73, 109, 

in, 113 f., 136. 
Loyola, Ignatius, 50, 105. 
Luther, Martin, 48, 78, 104. 
Lycurgus, 10. 
Lyon, Mary, 99. 

Magellan, 45. 

Mandeville, Sir John, 44. 

Mann, Horace, 96, 126 ff. 

Marco Polo, 44. 

Medici, Cosimo de, 46. 

Melanchthon, Philip, 48 f., 78, 104 f. 

Mencius, 4. 

Milton, John, 54, 112 f., 117, 135 f. 

Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, 53 f ., 

109 f., in, 113, 134 f. 
More, Sir Thomas, 47. 
Mulcaster, Richard, 54 f., in f. 

Nicholas V, Pope (see Parentucelli). 
Nicole, 51. 

Page, David P., 98. 

Parentucelli, Tommaso, 46. 

Pascal, 51. 

Patrick, Saint, 32. 

Peabody, Elizabeth, 99. 

Penn, William, 92. 

Pericles, 13. 

Pestalozzi, John Henry, 63 ff., 66, 69, 

7°> 7 1 . 73> 75. ™7» "9 S-, 122, 

137- 



Petrarch, 46, 103. 

Philip of Macedon, 19. 

Pius II, Pope (see Aeneas Sylvius 

Piccolomini). 
Plato, 16 f., 36. 
Prodicus, 13. 
Protagoras, 13. 
Ptolemies, 19. 

Ptolemy the Astronomer, 19. 
Pythagoras, 14. 

Quintilian, 27 f. 

Rabelais, Francois, 52 f., 108 f., 

no. 
Ratich [Ratichius] (see Ratke). 
Ratke, Wolfgang, 55 f., 81 , 114, 

117. 
Rein, Professor Wilhelm, 100. 
Reuchlin, John, 47, 103. 
Roelandsen, Adam, 92. 
Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, 60 f., 65, 71, 

109, no f., 113, 117, 118, 119, 

122, 136 f. 

Seneca, 26 f. 

Sheldon, Edward, 98. 

Socrates, 14 f. 

Spencer, Herbert, 71 ff., 125 f., 138. 

Spurius Carvilius, 23. 

Sturm, John, 49, 77, 105. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 92. 

Tertullian, 32. 

Vergerius, Petrus Paulus, 46. 
Verulam, Lord (see Bacon, Sir 
Francis). 

Ward, Lester F., 74. 
Wessel, John, 47. 
Willard, Emma, 99. 

Xenophon, 15 f. 

Yale, Elihu, 91. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 



Aim of education, statements of, 14, 
15, 18, 27, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 
59, 61, 63, 64, 67, 70, 71. 
Apperception, 67. 
Apprenticeship, 23. 
Asceticism, 31. 
Athenian education, 
Old, n f. 
New, 13 f. 

Benedictine order, 32. 

Brethren of the Christian Schools, 5 1 f . 

Burgher schools, 38. 

Castle school, 35. 

Catechetical school, 32. 

Cathedral school, 32. 

Chinese education, 4. 

Chivalric education, 35. 

Church fathers, 32. 

Citharist (see Music-master). 

Concentration, theory of, 68. 

Conceptualism, 37. 

Correlation, theory of, 69. 

Cosmopolitan Greek education, 19. 

Counter-reformation (see Jesuit edu- 
cation). 

Crusades, 34 f . 

Curriculum, 4, 10, 11 f., 13, 17, 18, 23, 
24, 28, 33, 35 f., 37, 49. 5 1 . 52, 
59 i-, 72. 

Didaskaleion (see Music-school). 
Disputation (see Jesuit education). 
Double-translation, 53. 

Early Christian education, 31 f. 
Educational principles, statements of, 

26, 27, 53, 54, 55. 56, 57, 60, 61, 

64 f., 66 f., 70, 72. 



Educational theory, 

Greek (see Aristotle, Plato, Pythag- 
oras, Socrates, the Sophists, 
Xenophon). 
Roman (see Cicero, Quintilian, 

Seneca). 
Modern (see Ascham, Comenius, 
Froebel, Herbart, Kant, Locke, 
Milton, Montaigne, Mulcaster, 
Pestalozzi, Rabelais, Ratke, Rous- 
seau, Spencer). 

Educational values, 71 f. 

Education of women (see Female 
education). 

Educative instruction, 68. 

Egyptian education, 3. 

England, School system of, 84 ff. 

English public schools, 49, 77. 

Enlightenment movement, 60. 

Ephebic training, 11, 12. 

Episcopal schools (see Cathedral 
school). 

Erudition (see Jesuit education). 

Evolutionary conception, 75 f. 

Female education, 11, 12, 17, 3^, 61, 

98 f. 
Formal discipline defined, 56. 
Formal discipline movement, 56 f. 
Formal steps, 68. 
France, School system of, 83 f. 

Germany, School system of, 81 ff. 
Government, types of, 5, 9, 16. 
Grammatical-school, 25. 
Grammaticus (see Literatus). 
Grammatist, 12. 
Greek drama, 19. 
Greek education, 9 ff . 
Greek games, 19. 



145 



146 



INDEX 



Guild schools, 38. 
Gymnasium, 

Greek, 12. 

German, 49, 77. 
Gymnastic, 10, 17. 
Gymnastic-master, 12. 

Habit, 57. 

Hebrew education (see Jewish edu- 
cation). 
Hindu education, 4 f. 
Humanistic movement, 45 f. 
Humanistic schools, 77. 

India (see Hindu education). 
Inner school, 33. 

Jansenists, 51. 
Jesuit education, 50. 
Jewish education, 5. 
Judea (see Jewish education). 

Kindergarten, 70 f., 99 f. 

Literator, 24. 

Literature, 3, 4, 5, 6, 19, 24, 25, 36. 

Literatus, 24. 

Ludimagister (see Literator). 

Ludus, 24. 

Many-sided interest, 68. 
Mediaeval education, 31 flf. 
Mediaeval universities, 37 f. 
Modern education, 43 ff . 
Mohammedan culture, 38. 
Monastic education, 32. 
Monasticism, 32. 
Music, 10, 11, 17, 18, 33. 
Music-master, 12. 
Music-school, 12. 

National school systems, 81-88. 

Naturalism defined, 57. 

Naturalistic movement, 57 ff. 

Naturalistic schools, 80 f . 

Natural punishment, 72. 

New York State (see Summary of 

education in the State of New 

York). 
Nominalism, 36. 



Oratorians, 50 f . 

Oratory of Jesus (see Oratorians). 
Outer school, 33. 

Outlines of Modern Educational 
Classics, 134-138. 

Paedotribe (see Gymnastic-master). 

Palace school, 34. 

Palaestra (see Wrestling-school). 

Pansophic scheme, 59 f. 

Parishad, 4. 

Parish school, 32. 

Parochial school (see Parish school). 

Pedagogical seminary, 66. 

Pedagogue, 12, 25. 

Persian education, 5 f. 

Philanthropinum, 62. 

Philosophical schools, 14 ff., 25. 

Prelection (see Jesuit education). 

Priest, 3, 5. 

Primitive education, 

in Greece, 9 f . 

in Rome, 23. 
Psychological movement, 63 ff . 

definition of, 63. 
Punishment by consequences 
Natural punishment). 

Quadrivium, 33. 



(see 



Rationalistic movement, 62 f. 

defined, 62. 
Realism, 

scholastic, 36. 

modern, defined, 52. 
Realistic movement, 52 ff. 
Realistic schools, 78 ff. 
Religion, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 17, 22. 
Reformation, Protestant, 47 ff. 

in England, 49. 
Renaissance (see Humanistic move- 
ment). 
Repetition (see Jesuit education). 
Revival of Learning (see Humanistic 

movement). 
Rhetor, 25. 
Rhetorical school, 25. 
Roman education, 21 ff. 

Scholasticism, 36 f. 



INDEX 



147 



Scholastic (see Schoolmen). 

School funds, 94, 95, 96, 97. 

Schoolmen, 37. 

Schools of the prophets, 5. 

Scribe, 3, 5. 

Self -activity, 70. 

Self-development, 65, 70, 72. 

Self-government, 72. 

Simultaneous instruction, 51. 

Social organization, 3, 4, 6, 10, 21, 22. 

Society of Jesus (see Jesuit education). 

Sociological conception, 73 ff . 

Sophist, 13. 

Spartan education, 10 f. 

Summary of education in the State of 

New York, 129-133. 
Summary of modern education, 103- 

128. 
Synagogue, 5. 
Systems of education (see Chinese 

education, Egyptian education, 



Greek education, Hindu educa- 
tion, Jewish education, Mediaeval 
education, Modern education, 
National school systems, Sum- 
mary of education in the State of 
New York). 

Training of teachers, 50, 52, 55, 66, 

78, 98. 
Trivium, 33. 
Tutorial instruction, 53, 54, 55, 57. 

United States, school system of, 86 ff . 

Historical sketch of education in 
the, 89-100. 
Universals, 36. 
Utilitarian movement, 71 f. 

definition of, 71. 

Wrestling-school, 12. 



